ANP Study Guide: Chapters 1–3 (Exam I)

Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

Anatomy and Physiology Overview

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences for understanding the structure and function of the human body. Anatomy focuses on the physical structures, while physiology examines how those structures operate.

• Anatomy: The study of body structure, including size, shape, and location of organs.

• Physiology: The study of body function, including processes and mechanisms.

• Relationship: Structure determines function; for example, the shape of the heart enables it to pump blood.

• Example: Identifying whether a scenario is anatomical (e.g., location of the heart) or physiological (e.g., heart rate).

Levels of Structural Organization

The human body is organized into hierarchical levels, each building upon the previous.

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules

• Cellular Level: Cells and their organelles

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells

• Organ Level: Two or more types of tissues

• Organ System Level: Organs working together

• Organism Level: The complete living being

• Order: Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

• Application: Identifying which organ system is affected in a disorder (e.g., diabetes affects the endocrine system).

Organ System Overview

The body contains several organ systems, each with specific functions and associated organs.

• Organ Systems: Integumentary, Skeletal, Muscular, Nervous, Endocrine, Cardiovascular, Lymphatic, Respiratory, Digestive, Urinary, Reproductive

• Functions: For example, the cardiovascular system transports blood; the digestive system breaks down food.

• Organs: Heart (cardiovascular), lungs (respiratory), kidneys (urinary), etc.

• Application: Identifying affected organ systems in disorders (e.g., asthma affects the respiratory system).

Medical Imaging

Medical imaging techniques allow visualization of internal structures. PET scans use radioisotopes to detect metabolic activity.

• PET (Positron Emission Tomography): Uses radioisotopes to visualize metabolic processes.

• Relation to Radioisotopes: Radioisotopes emit positrons, which are detected to form images.

The Language of Anatomy

Standardized anatomical terms describe positions and directions relative to the body.

• Anatomical Position: Standing, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward.

• Directional Terms: Superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal.

• Example: The heart is medial to the lungs.

Body Planes and Sections

Body planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body for anatomical study.

• Sagittal Plane: Divides body into left and right

• Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior and posterior

• Transverse Plane: Divides body into superior and inferior

• Application: Identifying which plane passes through an organ (e.g., a transverse plane through the liver).

Body Cavities

Body cavities house organs and protect them.

• Dorsal Cavity: Contains the brain and spinal cord

• Ventral Cavity: Contains thoracic (heart, lungs) and abdominopelvic (digestive organs, urinary bladder, reproductive organs) cavities

• Application: Identifying organs within each cavity

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. It involves feedback mechanisms and specific components.

• Components: Receptor, Control Center, Effector, Set Point, Set Point Range

• Feedback Mechanisms: Negative feedback (counteracts change), Positive feedback (amplifies change)

• Examples: Blood pressure (negative feedback), blood clotting (positive feedback), body temperature regulation

• Application: Identifying feedback type and components in scenarios

Component	Role
Receptor	Detects change
Control Center	Processes information, determines response
Effector	Carries out response
Set Point	Normal value
Set Point Range	Acceptable range

Feedback Example:

• Negative Feedback: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin

• Positive Feedback: Oxytocin release during childbirth

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry

Composition of Matter

Matter is composed of atoms, which consist of subatomic particles.

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus

• Atomic Mass Number: Number of protons plus neutrons

• Subatomic Particles: Protons (+), Neutrons (0), Electrons (-)

• Nucleus: Contains protons and neutrons

• Orbitals: Contain electrons

• Reactive Atom: Has unfilled valence shell

• Inert Atom: Has filled valence shell (e.g., noble gases)

• Periodic Table: Used to determine number of shells and valence electrons

Identifying Elements and Isotopes

Elements are defined by their atomic number. Isotopes have the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

• Isotope: Same element, different atomic mass

• Radioisotope: Unstable isotope that emits radiation

• Biological Use: PET scans, tracing elements in metabolism

• Example: Iodine radioisotope used to detect thyroid disorders (goiter)

Molecules and Compounds

Molecules are formed when atoms bond together. Compounds are molecules composed of different elements.

• Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded (e.g., O2)

• Compound: Molecule with different elements (e.g., H2O)

Chemical Bonds and Reactions

Chemical bonds are formed by interactions between electrons. Types of bonds include ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

• Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl)

• Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons (e.g., H2O)

• Polar Covalent: Unequal sharing (e.g., water)

• Non-Polar Covalent: Equal sharing (e.g., O2)

• Hydrogen Bond: Weak attraction between polar molecules

• Electronegativity: Ability of atom to attract electrons; determines bond polarity

• Bond Strength Ranking: Covalent > Ionic > Hydrogen

Formula Example:

• $\text{Na}^+ + \text{Cl}^- \rightarrow \text{NaCl}$

Biochemistry: Inorganic Substances

Inorganic substances include water, salts, acids, and bases. Water is essential for life due to its unique properties.

• Water: High heat capacity, solvent, participates in hydrolysis and dehydration reactions

• Hydrolysis: Water breaks bonds

• Dehydration: Water is removed to form bonds

• Salts: Dissociate in water due to ionic bonds

• Temperature Regulation: Water's high heat capacity

• Bond Type: Hydrogen bonds between water molecules

Organic Compounds

Organic compounds include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids. Each has specific monomers, bonds, and functions.

• Carbohydrates: Monomer = monosaccharide; function = energy

• Lipids: Types = triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids; function = energy storage, cell membrane

• Proteins: Monomer = amino acid; function = structure, enzymes, transport

• Nucleic Acids: Monomer = nucleotide; function = genetic information

Compound	Monomer	Bond	Function
Carbohydrate	Monosaccharide	Glycosidic	Energy
Lipid	Fatty acid, glycerol	Ester	Energy, membrane
Protein	Amino acid	Peptide	Structure, enzymes
Nucleic Acid	Nucleotide	Phosphodiester	Genetic info

Lipids

Lipids are diverse molecules important for energy storage and cell structure.

• Types: Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

• Functions: Energy storage, cell membrane structure, hormone production

Nucleic Acids

Nucleic acids store and transmit genetic information. DNA structure is stabilized by hydrogen bonds.

• DNA Structure: Double helix, backbone of sugar and phosphate

• Nucleotide Pairing: A-T (2 hydrogen bonds), G-C (3 hydrogen bonds)

• Bonds: Phosphodiester bonds in backbone, hydrogen bonds between bases

Carbohydrates

Carbohydrates are the primary energy source for cells.

• Monomers: Monosaccharides (e.g., glucose)

• Importance: Provide quick energy

Proteins

Proteins are essential for structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.

• Monomer: Amino acid

• Types: Structural, enzymatic, transport, regulatory

• Roles: Enzymes, hormones, antibodies

• Variation: Due to sequence and structure

• Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → Protein

$\text{DNA} \rightarrow \text{RNA} \rightarrow \text{Protein}$

Chapter 3: Cells and Tissues

Anatomy of a Generalized Cell

Cells are the basic unit of life, with specialized structures for various functions.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material, controls cell activities

• Components: Nuclear envelope, nucleolus, chromatin

• Function: DNA storage, RNA synthesis

Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane regulates entry and exit of substances and maintains cell integrity.

• Components: Phospholipid bilayer, proteins, cholesterol

• Functions: Protection, transport, communication

• Transport Proteins: Channel, carrier, receptor proteins

• Application: Identifying transport proteins in figures

Cytoplasm and Organelles

The cytoplasm contains organelles, each with specific functions.

• Cytoplasm: Fluid and organelles between nucleus and membrane

• Organelles: Mitochondria (energy), ribosomes (protein synthesis), ER (protein/lipid synthesis), Golgi apparatus (processing), lysosomes (digestion)

• Ribosomes and ER: Ribosomes synthesize proteins; ER transports and modifies proteins

Protein Pathways

Proteins are synthesized and trafficked through specific cellular pathways.

• Pathways: Nucleus → Ribosome → ER → Golgi → Plasma membrane or secretion

• Application: Tracing protein path in figures

Cell Physiology: Diffusion and Osmosis

Cells exchange substances through diffusion and osmosis, governed by concentration gradients and membrane permeability.

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration

• Osmosis: Movement of water across a membrane

• Intracellular Fluid: Inside cell

• Extracellular/Interstitial Fluid: Outside cell

• Tonicity: Effect of solution on cell volume (isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic)

• Passive Transport: No energy required (simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis)

• Active Transport: Requires energy (ATP)

Transport Type	Energy Required	Example
Simple Diffusion	No	O2 across membrane
Facilitated Diffusion	No	Glucose via carrier protein
Osmosis	No	Water movement
Active Transport	Yes	Na+/K+ pump

Example: In a hypertonic solution, water leaves the cell, causing it to shrink.

Short Answer Applications

• Protein Pathway: Trace from nucleus to secretion

• Tonicity: Describe effects of different solutions on cell volume

Additional info: These notes expand on brief study guide points to provide academic context and examples for exam preparation.