Basic Chemistry and Biochemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

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Matter is the fundamental substance that makes up all physical objects. Understanding matter is essential for studying the chemical basis of life.

Energy is the capacity to do work or cause change. It is crucial for all biological processes.

Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.
Potential Energy: Stored energy.
Forms of Energy:
- Chemical: Stored in bonds.
- Electrical: Movement of charged particles.
- Mechanical: Direct movement of matter.
- Radiant: Energy carried by waves (e.g., light).
Law of Conservation of Energy: Energy can be converted from one form to another, but cannot be created or destroyed.

All matter is composed of elements, which are substances that cannot be broken down into simpler substances by chemical means.

Elements: Pure substances (see periodic table).
Major Elements in the Body: C, O, H, N (96% of body weight).
Atoms: Smallest unit of an element.
- Protons: Positively charged particles.
- Neutrons: Neutral particles.
- Electrons: Negatively charged particles.
Atomic Models: Planetary model vs. orbital model.

What Determines the Unique Property of Each Element?

Atomic Number: Number of protons.
Mass Number: Protons + neutrons.
Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.
Atomic Weight: Average mass of all isotopes.
Periodic Table: Organizes elements by properties.

Atoms combine to form molecules and mixtures, which are essential for biological structure and function.

Molecules: Two or more atoms bonded together.
Compounds: Molecules with different types of atoms.
Mixtures: Physical combinations of substances.
- Solutions: Homogeneous mixtures.
  - Solvent: Substance present in greatest amount (usually water).
  - Solute: Substance dissolved in solvent.
  - Concentration: Amount of solute per volume of solvent.
  - Percent, mg/dL, Molarity: Ways to express concentration.
- Colloids: Heterogeneous mixtures with larger particles.
- Suspensions: Mixtures with visible particles that settle out.

Chemical bonds hold atoms together in molecules and compounds.

Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another, creating ions.
Covalent Bonds: Atoms share electrons.
- Can be single, double, or triple bonds.
- Polar bonds create a dipole (unequal sharing).
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.

Chemical reactions involve making or breaking bonds, leading to new substances.

Types of Chemical Reactions:
- Synthesis (Anabolic): A + B → AB
- Decomposition (Catabolic): AB → A + B
- Exchange: AB + C → AC + B
- Redox (Oxidation-Reduction): Transfer of electrons between atoms.
Example: Cellular respiration of glucose:
Energy Flow: Chemical reactions store or release energy.
Factors Affecting Reaction Rates: Temperature, concentration, particle size, catalysts (enzymes).

Inorganic compounds, such as water, salts, acids, and bases, are essential for life.

Water: Most abundant inorganic compound in the body.
Five Properties of Water:
- High heat capacity
- High heat of vaporization
- Polar solvent properties
- Reactivity (hydrolysis, dehydration synthesis)
- Cushioning
Salts: Ionic compounds that dissociate in water to form electrolytes.

Organic compounds are carbon-based molecules essential for life. They are synthesized and broken down by specific chemical reactions.

Macromolecules: Large molecules made by dehydration synthesis; broken down by hydrolysis.
Elements: C, H, O, N (sometimes P and S).

Carbohydrates: Main source of energy.
- Monosaccharides: Glucose, galactose, fructose.
- Disaccharides: Sucrose, lactose, maltose.
- Polysaccharides: Starch, glycogen.
Lipids: Hydrophobic molecules for energy storage, insulation, and cushioning.
- Triglycerides: Fats and oils (saturated and unsaturated).
- Phospholipids: Major component of cell membranes.
- Steroids: Cholesterol, hormones.
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids with diverse functions.
- Structure: Collagen (fibrous), myosin (movement), enzymes (globular).
- Levels of Structure: Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.
- Denaturation: Loss of structure and function due to environmental changes.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA store and transmit genetic information.
- Nucleotides: Building blocks (adenine, guanine, cytosine, thymine, uracil).
- DNA: Double helix, stores genetic code.
- RNA: Single-stranded, involved in protein synthesis.
- ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, main energy currency of the cell.

Type	Monomer	Main Function	Examples
Carbohydrates	Monosaccharide	Energy source	Glucose, starch, glycogen
Lipids	Fatty acids, glycerol	Energy storage, insulation	Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids
Proteins	Amino acids	Structure, enzymes, transport	Collagen, enzymes, antibodies
Nucleic Acids	Nucleotides	Genetic information	DNA, RNA, ATP

Polymers of amino acids: 20 different amino acids.
Levels of Structure: Primary (sequence), secondary (alpha helix, beta sheet), tertiary (3D folding), quaternary (multiple polypeptides).
Denaturation: Loss of structure and function.
Functions: Enzymes, structure, transport, defense, regulation.

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.
Protein function is determined by its shape, which is specified by the sequence of amino acids.
Hydrolysis and dehydration synthesis are key reactions in the formation and breakdown of macromolecules.