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BI-013 Final Exam Learning Outcomes: Structured Study Guide

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CH 01. The Human Body: An Orientation

Organ Systems of the Body

The human body is organized into eleven distinct organ systems, each with specialized components and functions essential for maintaining life.

  • Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails; protects body, regulates temperature.

  • Skeletal System: Bones, joints; supports body, protects organs, stores minerals.

  • Muscular System: Skeletal muscles; movement, posture, heat production.

  • Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves; fast control, communication, response to stimuli.

  • Endocrine System: Glands (pituitary, thyroid, etc.); hormone production, slow regulation.

  • Cardiovascular System: Heart, blood vessels; transport of nutrients, gases, wastes.

  • Lymphatic System: Lymph nodes, vessels; immune defense, fluid balance.

  • Respiratory System: Lungs, airways; gas exchange (O2, CO2).

  • Digestive System: Stomach, intestines; breakdown and absorption of food.

  • Urinary System: Kidneys, bladder; waste removal, water/electrolyte balance.

  • Reproductive System: Ovaries/testes; production of offspring.

Homeostasis: Negative and Positive Feedback

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. Feedback mechanisms regulate physiological processes:

  • Negative Feedback: Reverses a change to restore balance (e.g., temperature regulation).

  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth).

Anatomical Terms

Correct anatomical terminology is used to describe body directions, regions, and planes:

  • Directions: Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal.

  • Regions: Axial (head, neck, trunk), appendicular (limbs).

  • Planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse.

CH 02. Chemistry Comes Alive

Polar vs. Nonpolar Compounds

Compounds are classified based on their distribution of electrical charge:

  • Polar Compounds: Unequal sharing of electrons, partial charges (e.g., water).

  • Nonpolar Compounds: Equal sharing, no charge separation (e.g., methane).

Lipids: Structure and Function

Lipids are hydrophobic biomolecules with diverse roles:

  • Building Blocks: Fatty acids, glycerol.

  • Structure: Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.

  • Functions: Energy storage, membrane structure, signaling.

ATP in Cell Metabolism

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the cell's energy currency, enabling metabolic reactions.

  • Role: Transfers energy via phosphate bonds.

  • Equation:

CH 03. Cells: The Living Units

Selective Permeability of Plasma Membrane

The plasma membrane allows certain substances to pass while restricting others, maintaining cellular integrity.

  • Mechanism: Lipid bilayer, protein channels, transporters.

Transport Mechanisms

Cells use various methods to move substances:

  • Simple Diffusion: Passive movement of small, nonpolar molecules.

  • Facilitated Diffusion: Passive, uses protein channels for larger/polar molecules.

  • Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a semipermeable membrane.

Cellular Organelles

Key organelles and their functions:

  • Mitochondria: ATP production (cellular respiration).

  • Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

  • Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER: Protein processing; Smooth ER: Lipid synthesis.

  • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, packages proteins/lipids.

Protein Synthesis

Protein synthesis occurs in two phases:

  • Transcription: DNA to mRNA (nucleus).

  • Translation: mRNA to protein (ribosome, tRNA, rRNA).

CH 04. Tissue: The Living Fabric

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelia are classified by cell shape and layers:

  • Types: Simple squamous, cuboidal, columnar; stratified squamous, cuboidal, columnar.

  • Functions: Protection, absorption, secretion.

  • Locations: Skin, lining of organs, glands.

Glands

Glands are classified by secretion type and structure:

  • Exocrine: Secrete via ducts (e.g., sweat, saliva).

  • Endocrine: Secrete hormones into blood.

  • Multicellular vs. Unicellular: Multiple cells (e.g., salivary gland) vs. single cell (e.g., goblet cell).

Connective Tissue

Connective tissues support and protect body structures:

  • Types: Loose (areolar), dense, cartilage, bone, blood.

  • Functions: Support, protection, transport, storage.

CH 05. The Integumentary System

Layers of Skin and Subcutaneous Tissue

The skin consists of two main layers and underlying tissue:

  • Epidermis: Superficial, protective.

  • Dermis: Deep, contains blood vessels, nerves.

  • Subcutaneous Tissue: Fat storage, insulation.

Sweat and Oil Glands

Skin glands differ in structure, location, and secretion:

  • Sweat (Sudoriferous) Glands: Eccrine (all over body, watery sweat), apocrine (armpits, thicker secretion).

  • Oil (Sebaceous) Glands: Associated with hair follicles, secrete sebum (lubricates skin).

Functions of Skin

The skin performs multiple vital functions:

  • Protection

  • Temperature regulation

  • Sensation

  • Vitamin D synthesis

  • Excretion

CH 06. Bones and Skeletal Tissues

Anatomy of Flat and Long Bones

Bones are classified by shape and internal structure:

  • Flat Bone: Thin, protective (e.g., skull).

  • Long Bone: Shaft (diaphysis), ends (epiphysis).

  • Red Marrow: Hematopoiesis (blood cell formation).

  • Yellow Marrow: Fat storage.

  • Articular Cartilage: Reduces friction at joints.

  • Periosteum: Outer covering, bone growth/repair.

  • Endosteum: Lines internal bone surfaces.

Bone Formation

Two processes form bones:

  • Intramembranous Ossification: Direct formation from mesenchyme (flat bones).

  • Endochondral Ossification: Cartilage model replaced by bone (long bones).

Bone Cells

Bone remodeling involves three cell types:

  • Osteoblasts: Build bone.

  • Osteocytes: Maintain bone.

  • Osteoclasts: Break down bone.

CH 08. Joints

Body Movements

Common movements include flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, and circumduction.

Synovial Joints

Six types of synovial joints allow different movements:

  • Plane: Gliding (e.g., intercarpal).

  • Hinge: Flexion/extension (e.g., elbow).

  • Pivot: Rotation (e.g., radioulnar).

  • Condyloid: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction (e.g., wrist).

  • Saddle: Similar to condyloid (e.g., thumb).

  • Ball-and-Socket: All movements (e.g., shoulder, hip).

Major Joints

Jaw, shoulder, elbow, hip, knee, and ankle joints differ in articulating bones, structure, movement, and stability.

CH 09. Muscles and Muscle Tissue

Microscopic Structure of Skeletal Muscle

Skeletal muscle fibers contain specialized structures for contraction:

  • Myofibrils: Contractile units.

  • Sarcomeres: Functional contractile segments.

  • Sarcoplasmic Reticulum: Stores calcium.

  • Sarcoplasm: Cytoplasm of muscle cell.

  • Sarcolemma: Cell membrane.

  • T Tubules: Transmit action potentials.

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