BI-013 Final Exam Study Guide: Human Anatomy & Physiology Essentials

CH 01: The Human Body – Orientation

11 Organ Systems

The human body is organized into eleven major organ systems, each with distinct components and functions essential for maintaining life.

• Integumentary System: Composed of skin, hair, and nails; provides protection, regulates temperature, and enables sensation.

• Skeletal System: Includes bones and joints; offers structural support, protection for organs, and is the site of blood cell formation (hematopoiesis).

• Muscular System: Consists of skeletal muscles; responsible for movement and heat production.

• Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, and nerves; coordinates rapid responses and controls body functions.

• Endocrine System: Glands such as pituitary and thyroid; secretes hormones for slower, long-term regulation.

• Cardiovascular System: Heart and blood vessels; transports nutrients, gases, and wastes.

• Lymphatic/Immune System: Lymph nodes, spleen; defends against pathogens and maintains fluid balance.

• Respiratory System: Lungs and airways; facilitates gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out).

• Digestive System: GI tract and accessory organs; breaks down food and absorbs nutrients.

• Urinary System: Kidneys, bladder; removes waste and regulates water/electrolyte balance.

• Reproductive System: Gonads and associated structures; enables reproduction.

Mnemonic: "Some Say Marry Money, But My Brother Says Big Brains Matter More" helps recall the order of systems.

Feedback Mechanisms

Feedback mechanisms regulate physiological processes to maintain homeostasis.

• Negative Feedback: Reverses a change to restore balance (e.g., body temperature, blood glucose regulation).

• Positive Feedback: Amplifies a change, often leading to a specific outcome (e.g., labor contractions).

Anatomical Terms

Standardized anatomical terms describe locations and planes in the body.

• Directional Terms: Anterior/posterior, superior/inferior.

• Planes: Sagittal (left/right), frontal (anterior/posterior), transverse (superior/inferior).

• Regions: Abdominal quadrants, body landmarks.

CH 02: Chemistry Basics

Polar vs Nonpolar Molecules

Chemical properties of molecules affect their interactions and biological roles.

• Polar: Uneven charge distribution; hydrophilic (water-loving).

• Nonpolar: Even charge distribution; hydrophobic (repels water).

Lipids

Lipids are diverse biomolecules with structural and functional roles.

• Building Blocks: Fatty acids and glycerol.

• Types: Triglycerides (energy storage), phospholipids (membranes), steroids (hormones).

• Functions: Energy storage, membrane structure, hormone synthesis.

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)

ATP is the primary energy carrier in cells.

• Structure: Contains three phosphate groups; energy is stored in phosphate bonds.

• Function: Energy is released when phosphate bonds are broken.

Equation:

$\text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P}_i + \text{energy}$

CH 03: Cells

Selective Permeability

Cell membranes regulate the movement of substances in and out of cells.

• Definition: Allows some substances to pass while restricting others.

Transport Types

Cells utilize various transport mechanisms to move substances across membranes.

• Simple Diffusion: Passive movement without proteins.

• Facilitated Diffusion: Uses carrier or channel proteins.

• Osmosis: Movement of water across a membrane.

Organelles

Cellular organelles perform specialized functions.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP production.

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER synthesizes proteins; smooth ER synthesizes lipids.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and ships proteins and lipids.

Protein Synthesis

Proteins are synthesized through transcription and translation.

• Transcription: DNA is copied to mRNA.

• Translation: mRNA is decoded to build proteins.

• tRNA: Transfers amino acids to ribosome.

• rRNA: Structural component of ribosomes.

CH 04: Tissues

Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues cover surfaces and line cavities.

• Types: Simple (one layer), stratified (multiple layers), squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube-shaped), columnar (tall).

• Functions: Protection, absorption, secretion.

Glands

Glands are specialized epithelial structures for secretion.

• Exocrine: Secrete via ducts (e.g., sweat glands).

• Endocrine: Release hormones directly into blood.

• Unicellular: Goblet cells; Multicellular: Most glands.

Connective Tissue

Connective tissues support and connect other tissues.

• Types: Bone, cartilage, blood, adipose.

• Functions: Support, transport, storage.

CH 05: Skin (Integumentary System)

Skin Layers

The skin consists of three main layers.

• Epidermis: Outer layer; provides protection.

• Dermis: Inner layer; contains blood vessels, nerves.

• Hypodermis: Subcutaneous fat layer; insulates and cushions.

Glands

• Sweat Glands: Regulate temperature via cooling.

• Sebaceous Glands: Secrete oil for lubrication.

Skin Functions

• Protection

• Temperature Regulation

• Sensation

• Vitamin D Production

• Excretion

CH 06: Bones

Bone Structure

Bones have specialized regions and marrow types.

• Long Bone: Diaphysis (shaft), epiphysis (ends).

• Red Marrow: Site of blood cell formation.

• Yellow Marrow: Stores fat.

Ossification

Bone formation occurs via two processes.

• Intramembranous Ossification: Forms flat bones (e.g., skull).

• Endochondral Ossification: Forms bones from cartilage models.

Bone Cells

• Osteoblasts: Build bone.

• Osteocytes: Maintain bone.

• Osteoclasts: Break down bone.

CH 08: Joints

Joint Movements

Joints allow various types of movement.

• Flexion: Decreases angle between bones.

• Extension: Increases angle.

• Abduction: Moves limb away from midline.

• Rotation: Turns bone around its axis.

Synovial Joints

Synovial joints are classified by shape and movement.

• Ball-and-Socket: Shoulder, hip.

• Hinge: Elbow, knee.

• Pivot: Neck.

• Saddle: Thumb.

• Condylar: Wrist.

• Plane: Intercarpal joints.

Major Joints

• Bones Involved: Identify bones forming the joint.

• Movement: Range and type of movement.

• Stability: Provided by ligaments and joint shape.

CH 09: Muscles

Muscle Structure

Muscle fibers contain specialized structures for contraction.

• Sarcomere: Basic contractile unit.

• Sarcoplasmic Reticulum (SR): Stores calcium ions.

• T-tubules: Transmit electrical signals.

Neuromuscular Junction

Site where nerve signals trigger muscle contraction.

• Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter released by nerve to stimulate muscle.

Cross-Bridge Cycle

Sequence of events in muscle contraction.

1. Attach

2. Pull

3. Release

4. Reset

Requires ATP and Ca2+.

CH 11: Nervous System Basics

Ion Channels

Ion channels regulate electrical activity in neurons.

• Leak Channels: Always open.

• Voltage-Gated: Open in response to voltage changes.

• Ligand-Gated: Open in response to chemical signals.

Potentials

• Graded Potential: Local, variable changes in membrane potential.

• Action Potential: All-or-none electrical signal.

Action Potential

Sequence of events in nerve impulse transmission.

• Depolarization: Membrane potential becomes less negative.

• Repolarization: Returns to resting state.

• Propagation: Signal travels along axon.

CH 12: Central Nervous System (CNS)

Cerebral Cortex

The cortex is divided into functional regions.

• Frontal Lobe: Motor functions.

• Parietal Lobe: Sensory processing.

• Temporal Lobe: Hearing.

• Occipital Lobe: Vision.

Cerebellum

• Coordination and Balance: Fine-tunes movement.

Protection

• Meninges: Protective membranes.

• Cerebrospinal Fluid (CSF): Cushions brain and spinal cord.

• Blood-Brain Barrier: Restricts passage of substances.

Spinal Cord

• Gray Matter: Central region; contains neuron cell bodies.

• White Matter: Outer region; contains myelinated axons.

CH 13: Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)

Cranial Nerves

There are twelve cranial nerves, each with specific functions.

Mnemonic: "Oh Oh Oh To Touch And Feel Very Good Velvet, AH!" helps recall their names.

Spinal Nerves

• Dorsal Root: Sensory input.

• Ventral Root: Motor output.

Reflex Arc

Basic pathway for reflex actions.

• Receptor → Sensory neuron → CNS → Motor neuron → Effector

CH 14: Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Parasympathetic vs Sympathetic

The ANS regulates involuntary functions via two divisions.

• Parasympathetic: "Rest & digest"; conserves energy.

• Sympathetic: "Fight or flight"; mobilizes energy.

Fibers

• Cholinergic: Release acetylcholine (ACh).

• Adrenergic: Release norepinephrine.

Effects on Organs

Organ	Sympathetic Effect	Parasympathetic Effect
Heart	Increase rate	Decrease rate
Eyes	Dilate pupils	Constrict pupils
GI Tract	Decrease activity	Increase activity

Control

• Hypothalamus: Regulates ANS activity.

CH 15: Special Senses

Sensation and Perception

Sensory input is processed to create perception.

• Stimulus → Receptor → Brain interpretation

Receptors

• Chemoreceptors: Detect chemicals (taste, smell).

• Mechanoreceptors: Detect mechanical changes (touch, hearing).

• Photoreceptors: Detect light (vision).

CNS Role

• Processes sensory input in cortex.

Taste & Smell

• Chemical binding activates receptors, sending signals to the brain.

Eye Structures

• Lens: Focuses light.

• Retina: Detects light.

• Humors: Maintain intraocular pressure.

Disorders

• Cataracts: Cloudy lens.

• Glaucoma: Pressure damage to optic nerve.

Vision Problems

• Myopia: Nearsightedness.

• Hyperopia: Farsightedness.

• Astigmatism: Irregular corneal shape.

• Presbyopia: Aging lens.

Phototransduction

• Rods: Detect low light.

• Cones: Detect color.

Adaptation

• Light: Cones active.

• Dark: Rods active.

Visual Pathway

• Eye → Optic nerve → Thalamus → Cortex

Hearing

• Outer Ear: Collects sound.

• Middle Ear: Transmits vibrations.

• Inner Ear: Cochlea converts sound to nerve signals.

Hearing Loss

• Conductive: Problem with sound transmission.

• Sensorineural: Problem with nerve signal.

Balance

• Semicircular Canals: Detect rotation.

• Vestibule: Detects linear movement.