M1 Study Guide

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Chapter 1: The Human Body: An Orientation

Anatomy Organization and Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences for understanding the structure and function of the human body. Anatomy focuses on the body's structure, while physiology examines how those structures function.

Anatomy: The study of body structure, including size, shape, and location of organs.
Physiology: The study of body function, including how organs and systems work together.

The 11 Organ Systems of the Body

The human body is organized into eleven organ systems, each with specific organs and functions.

Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails; protects body, regulates temperature.
Skeletal System: Bones, joints; supports and protects, stores minerals, produces blood cells.
Muscular System: Skeletal muscles; movement, posture, heat production.
Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves; fast control, communication, response to stimuli.
Endocrine System: Glands (pituitary, thyroid, etc.); hormone production, slow control of body functions.
Cardiovascular System: Heart, blood vessels; transports nutrients, gases, wastes.
Lymphatic System: Lymph nodes, lymph vessels, spleen; immune defense, fluid balance.
Respiratory System: Lungs, trachea; gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out).
Digestive System: Stomach, intestines, liver; breakdown and absorption of food.
Urinary System: Kidneys, bladder; removes waste, regulates water and electrolytes.
Reproductive System: Ovaries/testes, uterus/prostate; produces offspring.

Anatomic Directions and Descriptions

Anatomic terminology describes locations and positions in the body.

Superior: Toward the head.
Inferior: Toward the feet.
Anterior (Ventral): Toward the front.
Posterior (Dorsal): Toward the back.
Medial: Toward the midline.
Lateral: Away from the midline.
Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment.
Distal: Farther from the point of attachment.

Body Planes

Three main planes divide the body for anatomical study:

Sagittal Plane: Divides body into left and right parts.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior and posterior parts.
Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides body into superior and inferior parts.

Major Body Cavities

The body contains two main cavities, each housing specific organs and membranes.

Dorsal Cavity: Contains the cranial cavity (brain) and vertebral cavity (spinal cord); lined by meninges.
Ventral Cavity: Contains thoracic cavity (heart, lungs) and abdominopelvic cavity (digestive, urinary, reproductive organs); lined by serous membranes (pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

Cavity	Main Organs	Membranes
Dorsal	Brain, spinal cord	Meninges
Ventral	Heart, lungs, digestive organs, urinary organs, reproductive organs	Pleura, pericardium, peritoneum

Chapter 2: Chemistry Comes Alive

Energy Types and Concepts

Energy is the capacity to do work. It exists in two main forms and four types relevant to physiology.

Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.
Potential Energy: Stored energy.
Chemical Energy: Stored in bonds of molecules (e.g., ATP).
Electrical Energy: Movement of charged particles (e.g., nerve impulses).
Mechanical Energy: Directly involved in moving matter (e.g., muscle contraction).
Radiant Energy: Energy of electromagnetic waves (e.g., sunlight).

Structure of the Atom

Atoms are the basic units of matter, composed of subatomic particles.

Proton: Positive charge, found in nucleus, mass = 1 amu.
Neutron: No charge, found in nucleus, mass = 1 amu.
Electron: Negative charge, orbits nucleus, negligible mass.

Key Terms: Isotope, Cation, Anion

Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.
Cation: Positively charged ion (lost electrons).
Anion: Negatively charged ion (gained electrons).

Main Elements of the Human Body

Four elements make up most of the human body:

Oxygen (O)
Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Nitrogen (N)

Types of Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons between atoms, forming ions.
Covalent Bond: Sharing of electrons between atoms.
Hydrogen Bond: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another electronegative atom.

Types of Chemical Reactions

Synthesis Reaction: Building larger molecules from smaller ones.
Decomposition Reaction: Breaking down molecules.
Exchange Reaction: Parts of molecules are exchanged.
Oxidation/Reduction (Redox): Transfer of electrons; oxidation = loss, reduction = gain.

pH, Acids, Bases, Buffers

pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration; scale 0-14.
Acid: Releases H+ ions; pH < 7.
Base: Accepts H+ ions; pH > 7.
Buffer: Resists changes in pH by neutralizing acids and bases.

Formula:

Classes of Macromolecules (with reference to Chapter 24)

Macromolecules are large biological molecules essential for life.

Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; energy source; monomer = monosaccharide.
Lipids: Fats, oils, steroids; energy storage, cell membranes; monomer = fatty acid/glycerol.
Proteins: Enzymes, structural components; monomer = amino acid.
Nucleic Acids: DNA, RNA; genetic information; monomer = nucleotide.

Macromolecule	Monomer	Main Function
Carbohydrate	Monosaccharide	Energy
Lipid	Fatty acid, glycerol	Energy storage, membranes
Protein	Amino acid	Structure, enzymes
Nucleic Acid	Nucleotide	Genetic information

Chapter 24: Nutrition, Metabolism, and Energy Balance

Macromolecules in Nutrition and Metabolism

Macromolecules are vital for nutrition and metabolism, providing energy and building blocks for the body.

Carbohydrates: Main energy source; broken down to glucose.
Lipids: Long-term energy storage; important for cell membranes and hormones.
Proteins: Build and repair tissues; enzymes for metabolic reactions.
Nucleic Acids: Not a direct energy source; essential for genetic information and cell function.

Example: Glucose metabolism provides ATP for cellular activities.

Formula for Cellular Respiration:

Additional info: Chapter 24 expands on the role of macromolecules in nutrition and energy balance, linking chemistry to physiology.