Skip to main content
Back

BIO 141: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology, Histology, Integumentary System, and Metabolism & Nutrition – Structured Study Notes

NotesPracticeVideo lessons

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Definitions and Scope

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences in understanding the human body. Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts, while physiology focuses on their functions.

  • Anatomy: Study of body structures and their relationships.

  • Physiology: Study of how body parts work and carry out life-sustaining activities.

Characteristics of Living Things

  • Organization

  • Metabolism

  • Growth and development

  • Responsiveness to stimuli

  • Regulation (homeostasis)

  • Reproduction

Levels of Organization

The human body is organized into six hierarchical levels:

  1. Chemical (atoms, molecules)

  2. Cellular (cells)

  3. Tissue (groups of similar cells)

  4. Organ (two or more tissue types)

  5. Organ system (organs working together)

  6. Organism (the whole body)

Types of Anatomy

  • Gross Anatomy: Study of large, visible structures.

  • Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye, including:

    • Cytology (cells)

    • Histology (tissues)

Organ Systems and Their Functions

The human body has eleven major organ systems, each with specific functions:

  • Integumentary – protection, temperature regulation

  • Skeletal – support, movement, protection

  • Muscular – movement, heat production

  • Nervous – control, communication

  • Endocrine – hormone production, regulation

  • Cardiovascular – transport of nutrients and gases

  • Lymphatic – immunity, fluid balance

  • Respiratory – gas exchange

  • Digestive – nutrient breakdown and absorption

  • Urinary – waste elimination, water balance

  • Reproductive – production of offspring

Anatomical Position and Directional Terms

  • Anatomical Position: Body upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward, feet flat and forward.

  • Directional Terms: Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.

Body Regions, Planes, and Cavities

  • Body Regions: General terms for areas (e.g., thoracic, abdominal, pelvic).

  • Anatomical Planes:

    • Frontal (coronal): Divides body into anterior and posterior.

    • Sagittal: Divides body into right and left.

    • Transverse (horizontal): Divides body into superior and inferior.

  • Body Cavities:

    • Dorsal: Cranial and vertebral cavities.

    • Ventral: Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

Abdominopelvic Quadrants and Regions

  • Quadrants: Right upper, left upper, right lower, left lower.

  • Regions: Nine regions (e.g., epigastric, umbilical, hypogastric).

Serous Membranes

  • Layers: Parietal (lines cavity), visceral (covers organ).

  • Main Types: Pleura (lungs), pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdominal organs).

  • Function: Reduce friction between organs.

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

  • Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment.

  • Feedback Loop Components: Receptor, control center, effector, stimulus, response.

  • Negative Feedback: Reverses a change (e.g., body temperature regulation).

  • Positive Feedback: Amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting).

Gradients and Cell Communication

  • Gradient: Difference in concentration, pressure, or charge across a membrane.

  • Cell Communication: Direct contact, chemical signaling.

Metabolism and Nutrition

Metabolic Processes

Metabolism is the sum of all chemical reactions in the body, divided into catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (synthesis).

  • Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules to release energy.

  • Anabolism: Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones.

Nutrient Monomers and ATP Synthesis

  • Carbohydrates (glucose)

  • Lipids (fatty acids)

  • Proteins (amino acids)

Energy Coupling and ATP

  • Exergonic reactions: Release energy (e.g., ATP hydrolysis).

  • Endergonic reactions: Require energy input.

  • Cells couple exergonic and endergonic reactions to drive cellular processes.

  • ATP hydrolysis is highly exergonic due to repulsion of phosphate groups.

Redox Reactions and Electron Carriers

  • Oxidation: Loss of electrons.

  • Reduction: Gain of electrons.

  • Electromotive force: The force that drives electron flow.

  • Electron carriers: NAD+, FAD (in cytosol and mitochondria).

ATP Generation Mechanisms

  • Substrate-level phosphorylation: Direct transfer of phosphate to ADP.

  • Oxidative phosphorylation: ATP synthesis using energy from electron transport chain.

Major Metabolic Pathways

  • Glycolysis: Glucose breakdown in cytosol; yields 2 ATP, 2 NADH, 2 pyruvate.

  • Intermediate step: Pyruvate converted to acetyl-CoA (aerobic) or lactate (anaerobic).

  • Citric Acid Cycle: Acetyl-CoA enters cycle; yields 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2 per glucose.

  • Electron Transport Chain: Electrons transferred to oxygen; produces most ATP.

Overall Reaction of Aerobic Glucose Catabolism

  • Role of Oxygen: Final electron acceptor in electron transport chain.

  • Total ATP Yield: About 32 ATP per glucose molecule.

Histology

Definition and Types of Tissues

Tissue is a group of similar cells performing a common function. Four main types:

  • Epithelial

  • Connective

  • Muscle

  • Nervous

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

  • Components: Ground substance and protein fibers.

  • Fiber Types: Collagen (strength), elastic (stretch), reticular (support).

  • Ground Substance Molecules: Glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, glycoproteins.

Membrane Junctions

  • Tight junctions: Prevent leakage (e.g., intestinal lining).

  • Desmosomes: Provide strength (e.g., skin).

  • Gap junctions: Allow communication (e.g., cardiac muscle).

Epithelial Tissue

  • Characteristics: Cellularity, polarity, avascularity, regeneration.

  • Functions: Protection, absorption, filtration, secretion, sensation.

  • Classification by Layers: Simple (one layer), stratified (multiple layers).

  • Classification by Shape: Squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube), columnar (tall).

  • Examples: Simple squamous (alveoli), stratified squamous (skin), simple cuboidal (kidney tubules).

  • Ciliated vs. Nonciliated: Ciliated moves substances (e.g., trachea); nonciliated does not.

  • Keratinized vs. Nonkeratinized: Keratinized (skin) is waterproof; nonkeratinized (mouth) is moist.

Glands and Secretions

  • Exocrine: Secrete via ducts (e.g., sweat, salivary glands).

  • Endocrine: Secrete hormones into blood.

  • Goblet cells: Unicellular glands producing mucus.

  • Modes of Secretion: Merocrine (exocytosis), apocrine (part of cell), holocrine (whole cell).

Connective Tissue

  • Basic Components: Cells, fibers, ground substance.

  • Functions: Support, protection, transport, storage.

  • Cell Types: Fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages, mast cells.

  • Types: Areolar, dense regular, dense irregular, elastic, reticular, adipose, cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage), bone, blood.

Muscle and Nervous Tissue

  • Muscle Types: Skeletal (voluntary, striated), cardiac (involuntary, striated, intercalated discs), smooth (involuntary, non-striated).

  • Locations: Skeletal (attached to bones), cardiac (heart), smooth (walls of organs).

  • Nervous Tissue: Neurons (transmit signals), neuroglia (support cells).

Body Membranes and Tissue Repair

  • Membrane Types: Mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial.

  • Repair: Regeneration (restores function), fibrosis (scar tissue formation).

Integumentary System

Skin Structure and Function

  • Layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (below dermis).

  • Hypodermis: Adipose tissue, insulates and anchors skin.

  • Functions of Skin: Protection, sensation, temperature regulation, excretion, vitamin D synthesis.

Cell Types and Layers of Epidermis

  • Keratinocytes: Produce keratin, main cell type.

  • Melanocytes: Produce melanin (pigment).

  • Merkel cells: Sensory receptors.

  • Langerhans cells: Immune defense.

  • Layers (deep to superficial): Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (thick skin), corneum.

Thick vs. Thin Skin

  • Thick skin: Palms, soles; has stratum lucidum, more layers.

  • Thin skin: Covers most of body; fewer layers.

Dermis and Surface Features

  • Dermis Layers: Papillary (upper, loose connective), reticular (lower, dense irregular connective).

  • Friction ridges: Fingerprints; improve grip and identification.

  • Cleavage lines: Collagen fiber orientation; important for surgical incisions.

  • Stretch marks: Tearing of dermis.

Skin Color and Thermoregulation

  • Pigments: Melanin, carotene, hemoglobin.

  • Melanin: Produced by melanocytes; protects against UV.

  • Erythema: Redness due to increased blood flow.

  • Thermoregulation: Sweat and blood flow adjustments.

Hair, Nails, and Glands

  • Hair: Protection, sensation, thermoregulation; types: lanugo, vellus, terminal.

  • Nails: Protect digits, aid in manipulation.

  • Glands: Sweat (merocrine, apocrine), sebaceous (oil).

Burns and Skin Cancer

  • Burn Degrees: First (epidermis), second (dermis), third (full thickness).

  • Rule of Nines: Estimates burn surface area.

  • Skin Cancers: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, malignant melanoma.

Cell Growth Terms

  • Hypertrophy: Increase in cell size.

  • Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number.

  • Atrophy: Decrease in cell size or number.

  • Dysplasia: Abnormal cell growth.

  • Neoplasia: Uncontrolled cell growth (tumor).

Pearson Logo

Study Prep