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BIO 141: Study Guide for Anatomy & Physiology – Modules 1, 4, 5, and 23

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Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Definitions and Scope

  • Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

  • Physiology: The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery—how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities.

Characteristics of Living Things

  • Organization

  • Metabolism

  • Growth and development

  • Responsiveness to stimuli

  • Regulation (homeostasis)

  • Reproduction

Levels of Organization in the Human Body

  1. Chemical level (atoms, molecules)

  2. Cellular level (cells and their organelles)

  3. Tissue level (groups of similar cells)

  4. Organ level (contains two or more types of tissues)

  5. Organ system level (organs that work closely together)

  6. Organismal level (all organ systems combined)

Gross vs. Microscopic Anatomy

  • Gross Anatomy: Study of large, visible structures.

  • Microscopic Anatomy: Study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye, including:

    • Cytology (cells)

    • Histology (tissues)

Organ Systems and Their Primary Functions

  • Integumentary: Protection, temperature regulation

  • Skeletal: Support, movement, protection, blood cell production

  • Muscular: Movement, heat production

  • Nervous: Control, communication

  • Endocrine: Hormone production, regulation

  • Cardiovascular: Transport of nutrients and wastes

  • Lymphatic: Immunity, fluid balance

  • Respiratory: Gas exchange

  • Digestive: Breakdown and absorption of nutrients

  • Urinary: Waste elimination, water balance

  • Reproductive: Production of offspring

Anatomical Position and Directional Terms

  • Standard anatomical position: Body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs pointing away from body.

  • Directional terms: Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.

Body Regions, Planes, and Cavities

  • Three anatomical planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse (horizontal).

  • Two main body cavities:

    • Dorsal cavity: Cranial and vertebral cavities

    • Ventral cavity: Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities

  • Four abdominopelvic quadrants and nine regions (e.g., right upper quadrant, left hypochondriac region, etc.)

Serous Membranes

  • Layers: Parietal (lines cavity), visceral (covers organ)

  • Function: Reduce friction between organs

  • Main types: Pleura (lungs), pericardium (heart), peritoneum (abdominal organs)

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

  • Homeostasis: Maintenance of a stable internal environment.

  • Feedback loop components: Stimulus, receptor, control center, effector, response.

  • Negative feedback: Reverses a change (e.g., body temperature regulation).

  • Positive feedback: Enhances a change (e.g., blood clotting).

Gradients and Cell Communication

  • Gradients: Differences in concentration, pressure, or temperature (e.g., chemical, electrical, pressure gradients).

  • Cell communication: Chemical signaling, electrical signaling.

Metabolism and Nutrition

Basic Concepts

  • Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body.

  • Catabolism: Breakdown of molecules to release energy.

  • Anabolism: Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones.

Nutrient Monomers and ATP Synthesis

  • Three main nutrient monomers: Glucose (carbohydrates), fatty acids (lipids), amino acids (proteins).

Energy Coupling and ATP

  • Exergonic reactions release energy; endergonic reactions require energy.

  • ATP hydrolysis is highly exergonic:

Redox Reactions and Electron Carriers

  • Oxidation: Loss of electrons.

  • Reduction: Gain of electrons.

  • Electron carriers: NAD+ (nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide), FAD (flavin adenine dinucleotide).

ATP Generation

  • Substrate-level phosphorylation: Direct transfer of phosphate to ADP.

  • Oxidative phosphorylation: Uses electron transport chain and chemiosmosis.

Major Pathways of Glucose Catabolism

  • Glycolysis: Occurs in cytosol; splits glucose into 2 pyruvate, yields 2 ATP and 2 NADH.

  • Intermediate step: Pyruvate converted to acetyl-CoA (aerobic) or lactic acid (anaerobic).

  • Citric Acid Cycle (Krebs Cycle): Occurs in mitochondria; yields 2 ATP, 6 NADH, 2 FADH2 per glucose.

  • Electron Transport Chain: Produces most ATP via oxidative phosphorylation; oxygen is final electron acceptor.

  • Overall aerobic glucose catabolism:

ATP Yield

  • From one glucose molecule: 36-38 ATP (aerobic conditions).

Histology

Definition and Tissue Types

  • Tissue: Group of similar cells performing a common function.

  • Four main tissue types:

    • Epithelial

    • Connective

    • Muscle

    • Nervous

Extracellular Matrix (ECM)

  • Two major components: Protein fibers and ground substance.

  • Three fiber types in connective tissue: Collagen, elastic, reticular.

  • Large molecules in ground substance: Glycosaminoglycans, proteoglycans, glycoproteins.

Membrane Junctions

  • Tight junctions (e.g., intestinal lining)

  • Desmosomes (e.g., skin)

  • Gap junctions (e.g., cardiac muscle)

Epithelial Tissue

  • Main characteristics: Cellularity, polarity, attachment, avascularity, regeneration.

  • Functions: Protection, absorption, filtration, secretion, sensation.

  • Classification by layers: Simple (one layer), stratified (multiple layers).

  • Classification by shape: Squamous (flat), cuboidal (cube-shaped), columnar (tall).

  • Examples:

    • Simple squamous: Air sacs in lungs

    • Stratified squamous: Skin, mouth, esophagus

    • Simple cuboidal: Kidney tubules

    • Simple columnar: Small intestine

    • Transitional: Urinary bladder

  • Ciliated vs. nonciliated: Presence or absence of cilia (e.g., respiratory tract vs. digestive tract)

  • Keratinized vs. nonkeratinized: Presence of keratin protein (e.g., skin vs. oral mucosa)

Glands

  • Exocrine: Secrete into ducts (e.g., sweat, salivary glands)

  • Endocrine: Secrete hormones into blood

  • Goblet cells: Unicellular glands that secrete mucus

  • Modes of secretion: Merocrine (exocytosis), apocrine (part of cell pinched off), holocrine (cell ruptures)

Connective Tissue

  • Basic components: Cells, fibers, ground substance

  • Functions: Support, protection, transport, energy storage

  • Cell types: Fibroblasts, adipocytes, macrophages, mast cells

  • Types:

    • Areolar, dense regular, dense irregular, elastic, reticular, adipose

    • Specialized: Cartilage (hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage), bone, blood

Muscle Tissue

  • Types: Skeletal (voluntary, striated), cardiac (involuntary, striated, intercalated discs), smooth (involuntary, non-striated)

  • Locations: Skeletal muscles, heart, walls of hollow organs

Nervous Tissue

  • Cell types: Neurons (transmit impulses), neuroglia (support cells)

  • Neuron structure: Cell body, dendrites, axon

Body Membranes

  • Types: Mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial

  • Functions: Protection, secretion, lubrication

Tissue Repair

  • Regeneration: Replacement with same tissue type

  • Fibrosis: Replacement with scar tissue

  • Scar tissue: Dense connective tissue formed after injury

The Integumentary System

Key Terms

  • Hypertrophy: Increase in cell size

  • Hyperplasia: Increase in cell number

  • Atrophy: Decrease in cell size or number

  • Dysplasia: Abnormal cell growth

  • Neoplasia: Uncontrolled cell growth (tumor)

Skin Structure

  • Two main layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (inner)

  • Layer below: Hypodermis (subcutaneous tissue)

  • Hypodermis: Composed of adipose and areolar tissue; insulates and anchors skin

Functions of the Skin

  • Protection

  • Temperature regulation

  • Sensation

  • Metabolic functions (e.g., vitamin D synthesis)

  • Excretion

Epidermis and Dermis

  • Five layers of epidermis (deep to superficial):

    1. Stratum basale

    2. Stratum spinosum

    3. Stratum granulosum

    4. Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)

    5. Stratum corneum

  • Keratinocytes: Main cell type; produce keratin

  • Other cells: Melanocytes (pigment), Merkel cells (touch), Langerhans cells (immune)

  • Thick vs. thin skin: Thick skin (palms, soles) has all five layers; thin skin lacks stratum lucidum

  • Dermis layers: Papillary (upper, loose connective tissue), reticular (deeper, dense irregular connective tissue)

Skin Features

  • Friction ridges: Enhance grip, form fingerprints

  • Cleavage lines: Orientation of collagen fibers; important for surgical incisions

  • Stretch marks: Tearing of dermal collagen

  • Pigments: Melanin, carotene, hemoglobin

  • Erythema: Redness due to increased blood flow

Accessory Structures

  • Hair: Structure (shaft, root, follicle); types (lanugo, vellus, terminal); functions (protection, sensation)

  • Nails: Growth from nail matrix; protection

Glands

  • Exocrine glands: Sweat (sudoriferous) and sebaceous (oil) glands

  • Merocrine (eccrine) sweat glands: Widely distributed, thermoregulation

  • Apocrine sweat glands: Axillary/genital regions, active at puberty

Burns and Skin Cancer

  • Burns:

    • First-degree: Epidermis only

    • Second-degree: Epidermis and part of dermis

    • Third-degree: Full thickness (epidermis, dermis, possibly deeper)

  • Rule of nines: Estimates burn surface area

  • Skin cancers:

    • Basal cell carcinoma: Most common, least dangerous

    • Squamous cell carcinoma: May metastasize

    • Malignant melanoma: Most dangerous, arises from melanocytes

Organ System

Main Function

Key Organs

Integumentary

Protection, temperature regulation

Skin, hair, nails

Skeletal

Support, movement, protection

Bones, joints

Muscular

Movement, heat production

Skeletal muscles

Nervous

Control, communication

Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Endocrine

Hormone production, regulation

Glands (pituitary, thyroid, etc.)

Cardiovascular

Transport of nutrients and wastes

Heart, blood vessels

Lymphatic

Immunity, fluid balance

Lymph nodes, spleen

Respiratory

Gas exchange

Lungs, trachea

Digestive

Breakdown and absorption of nutrients

Stomach, intestines

Urinary

Waste elimination, water balance

Kidneys, bladder

Reproductive

Production of offspring

Ovaries, testes

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