BIO 163: Comprehensive Study Guide for Human Anatomy & Physiology

Chapter 1: The Human Body – An Orientation

Levels of Organization

• Chemical Level: Atoms combine to form molecules.

• Cellular Level: Cells are made up of molecules.

• Tissue Level: Tissues consist of similar types of cells.

• Organ Level: Organs are made up of different types of tissues.

• Organ System Level: Organ systems consist of different organs that work together closely.

• Organismal Level: The human organism is made up of many organ systems.

Homeostasis

• Definition: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.

• Importance: Essential for normal body functioning and sustaining life.

Feedback Mechanisms

• Negative Feedback: The response reduces or shuts off the original stimulus (e.g., regulation of body temperature, blood glucose levels).

• Positive Feedback: The response enhances or exaggerates the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

Essential Survival Needs

• Nutrients

• Oxygen

• Water

• Stable body temperature

• Atmospheric pressure

Elements of a Control System

• Receptor: Detects changes (stimuli).

• Control Center: Determines set point, analyzes input, and determines response.

• Effector: Carries out the response to restore homeostasis.

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry

Atoms and Bonding

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons from one atom to another, forming ions (e.g., NaCl).

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons between atoms (e.g., H2O).

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another electronegative atom (important in water and DNA structure).

Properties of Water

• High heat capacity

• Polarity/solvent properties

• Chemical reactivity

• Cushioning

Dehydration Synthesis & Hydrolysis

• Dehydration Synthesis: Removal of water to join molecules together.

• Hydrolysis: Addition of water to break bonds between molecules.

Organic Compounds

• Carbohydrates: Main energy source; includes sugars and starches.

• Lipids: Fats and oils; energy storage, insulation, and cell membranes.

• Proteins: Made of amino acids; structural, enzymatic, and regulatory roles.

• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; genetic information storage and transfer.

Enzymes

• Definition: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.

Chapter 3: Cells and Tissues

Cell Organelles

• Plasma Membrane: Selectively permeable barrier of the cell.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP (energy) production.

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER synthesizes proteins; Smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies.

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

Membrane Transport

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Facilitated Diffusion: Diffusion with the help of membrane proteins.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.

• Active Transport: Movement of substances against their concentration gradient using energy (ATP).

Phases of Mitosis

• Prophase: Chromosomes condense, nuclear envelope dissolves.

• Metaphase: Chromosomes align at the cell's equator.

• Anaphase: Sister chromatids separate to opposite poles.

• Telophase: Nuclear envelopes reform, chromosomes decondense.

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA is copied into mRNA in the nucleus.

• Translation: mRNA is decoded to build a protein at the ribosome.

Tissue Types

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands; classified by layers (simple, stratified) and shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar).

• Connective Tissue: Supports, protects, binds other tissues (e.g., bone, blood, cartilage, adipose).

Naming Epithelial Tissues

• First name: Number of layers (simple = one, stratified = multiple)

• Second name: Cell shape (squamous = flat, cuboidal = cube, columnar = tall)

• Example: Simple squamous epithelium = one layer of flat cells

Muscle Tissue Types

• Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, striated, multinucleate, attached to bones.

• Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs, found in heart.

• Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, found in walls of hollow organs.

Chapter 4: Skin and Body Membranes

Epithelial Membranes

• Cutaneous: Skin; dry, outermost protective boundary.

• Mucous: Lines body cavities open to exterior (e.g., digestive, respiratory tracts).

• Serous: Lines closed body cavities; double-layered (parietal and visceral).

Layers of the Epidermis

• From deep to superficial: Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (only in thick skin), corneum.

Glands of the Skin

• Sebaceous Glands: Secrete sebum (oil).

• Sudoriferous Glands: Secrete sweat; two types: eccrine (all over body) and apocrine (armpits, groin).

Burns

• Third Degree Burns: Destroy entire skin layer; skin is gray-white or blackened, not painful due to nerve destruction.

Chapter 5: The Skeletal System

Bone Formation and Growth

• Ossification: Process of bone formation.

• Growth: Occurs at the epiphyseal plate (growth plate).

• Healing: Steps include hematoma formation, fibrocartilaginous callus, bony callus, bone remodeling.

Axial vs Appendicular Skeleton

• Axial: Skull, vertebral column, rib cage.

• Appendicular: Limbs and girdles (shoulder and pelvic).

Joints

• Cartilaginous Joints: Bones joined by cartilage (e.g., intervertebral discs).

• Synovial Joints: Freely movable, joint cavity with synovial fluid (e.g., knee, elbow).

Homeostatic Imbalances

• Spina bifida, anencephaly, cerebral palsy, types of arthritis (osteoarthritis, rheumatoid arthritis, gouty arthritis).

Chapter 6: The Muscular System

Muscle Types (Table 6.1)

Feature	Skeletal	Cardiac	Smooth
Control	Voluntary	Involuntary	Involuntary
Striations	Yes	Yes	No
Location	Attached to bones	Heart	Walls of hollow organs
Cells	Long, cylindrical, multinucleate	Branched, intercalated discs	Spindle-shaped, single nucleus

Connective Tissue Wrappings

• Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle.

• Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles (bundles of muscle fibers).

• Endomysium: Surrounds individual muscle fibers.

Sarcomere and Sarcolemma

• Sarcomere: Contractile unit of muscle fiber.

• Sarcolemma: Plasma membrane of muscle cell.

Muscle Contraction

• Action Potential: Electrical signal that triggers muscle contraction.

• Acetylcholine: Neurotransmitter that initiates muscle contraction.

• Sliding Filament Theory: Actin and myosin filaments slide past each other to shorten the muscle.

Homeostatic Imbalances

• Muscular dystrophy, myasthenia gravis, muscle cramps.

Chapter 7: The Nervous System

CNS vs PNS

• CNS (Central Nervous System): Brain and spinal cord.

• PNS (Peripheral Nervous System): Cranial and spinal nerves; includes sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) divisions.

Neuron Structure

• Dendrites: Receive signals.

• Cell Body: Contains nucleus and organelles.

• Axon: Transmits impulses away from cell body.

• Synaptic Cleft: Gap between neurons where neurotransmitters are released.

Neuron Classification

• Sensory (afferent), motor (efferent), interneurons (association).

Homeostatic Imbalances

• Multiple sclerosis, epilepsy, Parkinson’s disease.

Chapter 8: Special Senses

Layers of the Eye

• Fibrous: Sclera and cornea.

• Vascular: Choroid, ciliary body, iris.

• Sensory: Retina.

Homeostatic Imbalances of the Eye

• Conjunctivitis, color blindness, cataracts, glaucoma.

Anatomy of the Ear

• External Ear: Auricle, external auditory canal.

• Middle Ear: Ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes).

• Inner Ear: Cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals.

Equilibrium and Hearing

• Static Equilibrium: Senses position of head when body is stationary.

• Dynamic Equilibrium: Senses rotation and movement of head.

• Hearing: Sound waves cause vibration of tympanic membrane, ossicles, and cochlear fluids, stimulating hair cells.

Chapter 9: The Endocrine System

Hormone Types and Mechanisms

• Amino Acid-Based Hormones: Bind to receptors on cell membrane; use second messengers.

• Steroid-Based Hormones: Pass through cell membrane; bind to intracellular receptors.

Major Endocrine Glands and Hormones

• Pituitary, thyroid, parathyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads, pineal, thymus.

• Examples: Insulin (pancreas), growth hormone (pituitary), cortisol (adrenal cortex).

Disorders

• Diabetes insipidus, diabetes mellitus, Graves’ disease (hyperthyroidism), Cushing’s syndrome (adrenal cortex).

Chapter 10: Blood

Blood pH and Components

• Normal pH: 7.35–7.45

• RBCs (Erythrocytes): Carry oxygen; biconcave, no nucleus.

• WBCs (Leukocytes): Defense against disease; several types.

• Platelets (Thrombocytes): Blood clotting.

Types of WBCs (Table 10.2)

Type	Relative Abundance	Function
Neutrophils	Most numerous	Phagocytosis of bacteria
Lymphocytes	2nd most	Immune response
Monocytes	3rd	Phagocytosis; become macrophages
Eosinophils	4th	Kill parasitic worms
Basophils	Least	Release histamine

Hemostasis

• Vascular spasm, platelet plug formation, coagulation (blood clotting).

Blood Types (Table 10.3)

Blood Type	Antigens	Antibodies	Can Receive From
A	A	Anti-B	A, O
B	B	Anti-A	B, O
AB	A, B	None	All (universal receiver)
O	None	Anti-A, Anti-B	O (universal donor)

Chapter 11: Cardiovascular System

Heart Valves

• Atrioventricular (AV) Valves: Tricuspid (right), bicuspid/mitral (left); prevent backflow into atria.

• Semilunar Valves: Pulmonary (right), aortic (left); prevent backflow into ventricles.

Pulmonary vs Systemic Circuits

• Pulmonary Circuit: Right heart to lungs and back to left heart.

• Systemic Circuit: Left heart to body tissues and back to right heart.

Intrinsic Cardiac Conduction System

• SA node, AV node, bundle of His, bundle branches, Purkinje fibers; coordinate heart contraction.

Cardiac Output

• Definition: Volume of blood pumped by each ventricle per minute.

• Formula: $CO = HR \times SV$ (Heart Rate × Stroke Volume)

Chapter 12: The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

Functions of Lymphatics

• Return interstitial fluid to bloodstream, absorb fats, immune defense.

Lymph Nodes

• Function: Filter lymph, house lymphocytes.

• Location: Cervical, axillary, inguinal regions.

Lymphocytes

• B Cells: Mature in bone marrow; produce antibodies (humoral immunity).

• T Cells: Mature in thymus; cell-mediated immunity.

MALT

• Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue; found in tonsils, Peyer’s patches, appendix.

Innate vs Adaptive Immunity

• Innate: Non-specific, immediate (skin, mucous membranes, phagocytes).

• Adaptive: Specific, slower, memory (B and T lymphocytes).

Humoral vs Cell-Mediated Immunity

• Humoral: Antibody-mediated (B cells).

• Cell-Mediated: T cells directly attack infected cells.

Lymphocyte Development

• Origin: Red bone marrow.

• Maturation: B cells in bone marrow, T cells in thymus.

• Immunocompetence: Ability to recognize specific antigens.

Active vs Passive Humoral Immunity

• Active: Body produces its own antibodies (infection or vaccination).

• Passive: Antibodies received from another source (mother to fetus, injection).

Chapter 13: The Respiratory System

Respiratory Physiology

• Pulmonary Ventilation: Breathing; movement of air in and out of lungs.

• External Respiration: Gas exchange between lungs and blood.

• Transport of Gases: Oxygen and carbon dioxide carried by blood.

• Internal Respiration: Gas exchange between blood and tissues.

Mechanical Processes

• Inhalation: Diaphragm contracts, thoracic cavity increases, pressure decreases, air enters.

• Exhalation: Diaphragm relaxes, thoracic cavity decreases, pressure increases, air exits.

Zones of the Respiratory System

• Conducting Zone: Nose to terminal bronchioles; air passageways.

• Respiratory Zone: Respiratory bronchioles, alveolar ducts, alveoli; site of gas exchange.

Factors Influencing Respiratory Rate

• CO2 levels, blood pH, oxygen levels, emotional state.

Hyperventilation vs Hypoventilation

• Hyperventilation: Increased rate/depth of breathing; leads to decreased CO2.

• Hypoventilation: Decreased rate/depth; leads to increased CO2.

Chapter 14: The Digestive System and Body Metabolism

GI Tract Organs and Accessory Organs

• Main Organs: Mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus.

• Accessory Organs: Teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

• Sphincters: Control passage of food (e.g., lower esophageal, pyloric, ileocecal, anal).

Nutrient vs Water Absorption

• Nutrient Absorption: Mainly in small intestine.

• Water Absorption: Mainly in large intestine.

Accessory Structures and Secretions

• Liver (bile), pancreas (digestive enzymes), gallbladder (stores bile) release secretions into duodenum.

Cellular Respiration

• General Description: Process by which cells produce ATP from glucose.

• Three Phases:

  • Glycolysis (cytoplasm): Glucose → pyruvate, small ATP yield.

  • Krebs Cycle (mitochondria): Pyruvate → CO2, NADH, FADH2.

  • Electron Transport Chain (mitochondria): NADH/FADH2 → ATP, H2O.

Heat Promoting and Heat Loss Mechanisms

• Heat Promoting: Shivering, vasoconstriction, increased metabolism.

• Heat Loss: Sweating, vasodilation.

Chapter 15: The Urinary System

Body Fluids and Compartments

• Intracellular fluid (inside cells), extracellular fluid (plasma, interstitial fluid).

Urinary System Anatomy

• Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.

Kidney Structures and Nephron Anatomy

• Nephron: Functional unit of kidney.

• Order of Filtrate Passage: Glomerulus → Bowman's capsule → proximal convoluted tubule → loop of Henle → distal convoluted tubule → collecting duct.

• Filtrate Formation: Occurs in the glomerulus.

Acid-Base Balance

• Maintained by kidneys, lungs, and buffers; normal blood pH is 7.35–7.45.

Chapter 16: The Reproductive System

Male Reproductive Structures

• Primary Organ: Testes (produce sperm and testosterone).

• Accessory Duct System: Epididymis, vas deferens, urethra.

Male Reproductive Hormone

• Testosterone: Most important male hormone; responsible for secondary sex characteristics and sperm production.

Sperm Formation and Path

• Spermatogenesis: Sperm formation in seminiferous tubules of testes.

• Path: Seminiferous tubules → epididymis → vas deferens → ejaculatory duct → urethra.

Spermiogenesis

• Definition: Final stage of sperm development; maturation of spermatids into spermatozoa.

Meiosis

• One diploid cell (2n) divides to produce four haploid (n) cells, each genetically unique.

Female Reproductive Structures

• Primary Organ: Ovaries (produce eggs and hormones).

• Accessory Duct System: Uterine tubes, uterus, vagina.

Major Female Reproductive Hormones

• Estrogen: Promotes development of female secondary sex characteristics.

• Progesterone: Prepares uterus for pregnancy, maintains pregnancy.

Layers of the Uterus

• Perimetrium (outer), myometrium (muscular), endometrium (inner, sheds during menstruation).

Menstrual (Uterine) Cycle

• Average 28 days; includes menstrual phase, proliferative phase, secretory phase.

Mammary Gland Structures

• Alveoli (milk production), lactiferous ducts (milk transport), nipple (milk release).

Fertilization and Early Development

• Fertilization: Sperm and egg unite to form zygote.

• Cleavage: Rapid mitotic divisions of zygote.

• Blastocyst: Hollow ball of cells that implants in uterus.

Corresponding Structures in Male and Female Systems

• Testes (male) ↔ Ovaries (female)

• Penis (male) ↔ Clitoris (female)

• Scrotum (male) ↔ Labia majora (female)