BIO 181: Anatomy and Physiology – Final Lab Practical Exam Study Guide

Test Taking Tips for Practical Exams

• Get adequate rest before the exam to optimize cognitive performance.

• Avoid last-minute cramming; instead, review learning objectives and textbook material in advance.

• Eat a light meal before the exam to maintain energy and focus.

• Cease studying a few hours before the exam to reduce anxiety and consolidate memory.

• Practice mindfulness techniques, such as box breathing, to enhance concentration.

• Bring all necessary materials, such as writing utensils, to the exam.

• Maintain a positive mindset to improve test performance.

Muscle Identification (Stations 1-7)

Major Muscles of the Human Body

Students are required to identify major muscles on anatomical models. Understanding muscle location, function, and anatomical relationships is essential.

• Muscle Identification: Recognize and name muscles labeled on models (e.g., pectoralis major, deltoid, biceps brachii, rectus femoris, sternocleidomastoid, etc.).

• Muscle Function: Know the primary actions of each muscle (e.g., flexion, extension, abduction).

• Example: The biceps brachii is responsible for flexion of the forearm at the elbow.

EMG Analysis (Station 8)

Electromyography and Muscle Physiology

• EMG (Electromyography): A technique for recording the electrical activity produced by skeletal muscles.

• Phenomenon Demonstrated: The plot typically shows muscle action potentials during contraction and relaxation.

• Functional Unit of Muscle: The motor unit (a single motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates).

• Equation: $\text{Force} = \text{Number of active motor units} \times \text{Force per motor unit}$

Muscle Histology (Station 9)

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal Muscle: Striated, voluntary muscle tissue attached to bones.

• Cardiac Muscle: Striated, involuntary muscle tissue found in the heart; contains intercalated discs.

• Smooth Muscle: Non-striated, involuntary muscle tissue found in walls of hollow organs.

• Example: Skeletal muscle enables voluntary movement, while smooth muscle controls peristalsis in the digestive tract.

Cerebral Lobes and Brain Structures (Stations 10-12)

Cerebral Lobe Identification and Function

• Frontal Lobe: Responsible for voluntary movement, planning, and speech production (Broca's area).

• Parietal Lobe: Processes sensory information such as touch and spatial awareness.

• Occipital Lobe: Primary center for visual processing.

• Temporal Lobe: Involved in auditory processing and memory.

• Example: The frontal lobe is responsible for speech production.

Brain Structure Identification

• Identify major brain structures (e.g., corpus callosum, thalamus, hypothalamus, hippocampus).

• Hippocampus: Structure in the limbic system responsible for learning and long-term memory.

Neuron Structure Identification (Station 13)

Parts of a Neuron

• Cell Body (Soma): Contains the nucleus and organelles.

• Dendrites: Receive incoming signals from other neurons.

• Axon: Conducts electrical impulses away from the cell body.

• Example: The axon transmits action potentials to synaptic terminals.

Brain Meninges and Ventricles (Station 14)

Protective Coverings and Fluid-Filled Spaces

• Meninges: Three protective membranes (dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater) surrounding the brain and spinal cord.

• Ventricles: Fluid-filled cavities (lateral, third, and fourth ventricles) containing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF).

• Function: CSF cushions the brain and removes metabolic waste.

Somatic Reflex Arc Identification (Station 15)

Components of a Reflex Arc

• Sensory Neuron: Transmits afferent impulses to the CNS.

• Interneuron: Integrates information within the CNS.

• Motor Neuron: Transmits efferent impulses to effectors (muscles/glands).

• Effector: Muscle or gland that responds to the motor neuron signal.

• Example: The patellar reflex is a monosynaptic reflex arc.

Cranial Nerve Identification and Function (Station 16)

Cranial Nerves in Anatomical Order

Name	Number	Function
Olfactory	CN I	Sensory (smell)
Optic	CN II	Sensory (vision)
Oculomotor	CN III	Motor (eye movement)
Trochlear	CN IV	Motor (eye movement)
Trigeminal	CN V	Both (facial sensation, chewing)
Abducens	CN VI	Motor (eye movement)
Facial	CN VII	Both (facial expression, taste)
Vestibulocochlear	CN VIII	Sensory (hearing, balance)
Glossopharyngeal	CN IX	Both (taste, swallowing)
Vagus	CN X	Both (viscera, parasympathetic)
Accessory	CN XI	Motor (neck muscles)
Hypoglossal	CN XII	Motor (tongue movement)

Spinal Cord and Spinal Nerves (Station 17)

Spinal Cord Anatomy

• Identify structures such as the dorsal root, ventral root, spinal nerve, and gray/white matter.

• Function: The spinal cord transmits neural signals between the brain and the body and mediates reflexes.

Spinal Plexuses (Station 18)

Major Spinal Plexuses

Plexus	Spinal Nerves	Innervation Area
Cervical	C1–C5	Neck, diaphragm
Brachial	C5–T1	Shoulder, arm, hand
Lumbar	L1–L4	Anterior thigh, abdomen
Sacral	L4–S4	Posterior thigh, leg, foot

Endocrine Structures and Function (Stations 19-22)

Major Endocrine Organs and Hormones

• Pituitary Gland: Secretes hormones such as growth hormone (GH) and adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH).

• Thyroid Gland: Produces thyroid hormones (T3, T4) and calcitonin (decreases blood calcium).

• Adrenal Glands: Secrete cortisol, aldosterone, and epinephrine.

• Pancreas: Produces insulin and glucagon.

• Ovaries/Testes: Secrete sex hormones (estrogen, progesterone, testosterone).

• Example: Calcitonin from the thyroid gland decreases blood calcium concentrations.