BIO 207 Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Study Guide

Chemistry

Basic Chemical Principles in Physiology

Chemistry forms the foundation for understanding physiological processes in the human body. Key chemical concepts are essential for grasping how cells and tissues function.

• Charge of sub-atomic particles: Protons (+), neutrons (0), and electrons (-) are the fundamental particles of atoms.

• Ionic bonds: Formed when electrons are transferred between atoms, resulting in charged ions that attract each other.

• Covalent bonds: Created when atoms share electrons, leading to stable molecules.

Example: Sodium chloride (NaCl) forms via ionic bonding between sodium and chloride ions.

Endocrine System

Hormonal Regulation and Glands

The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormones secreted by glands. Understanding hormone pathways and their effects is crucial for physiology.

• Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system: A network of blood vessels connecting the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, allowing hormone transport.

• Purpose of adrenal cortex: Produces steroid hormones (e.g., cortisol, aldosterone) involved in stress response and electrolyte balance.

• Synergy of hormones: Hormones can work together to amplify physiological effects.

• Why iodine is essential to hormone function: Iodine is required for synthesis of thyroid hormones.

• Steroid hormone characteristics: Lipid-soluble, can cross cell membranes, act on intracellular receptors.

• Glucagon and insulin relationship: Glucagon raises blood glucose; insulin lowers it.

• Hormone response to blood glucose: Insulin is released when blood glucose is high; glucagon when it is low.

• What happens when your core body temperature decreases? Hormones such as thyroxine may increase metabolic rate to generate heat.

• Positive feedback loops: Mechanisms where the output enhances the original stimulus (e.g., oxytocin in childbirth).

Example: The hypothalamus releases TRH, stimulating the pituitary to release TSH, which acts on the thyroid gland.

Homeostasis

Maintaining Internal Balance

Homeostasis refers to the body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions despite external changes.

• Ossification: The process of bone formation.

Example: Regulation of blood glucose levels by insulin and glucagon.

Bone

Structure and Function of Bones

Bones provide support, protection, and facilitate movement. They are dynamic tissues that undergo constant remodeling.

• Purpose of parathyroid gland: Regulates calcium levels in the blood.

• What characteristic of bone allows the tissue to be resistant to shattering? Collagen fibers provide flexibility and tensile strength.

• Canaliculi: Small channels connecting osteocytes for nutrient exchange.

• Synovial joints examples: Knee, elbow, shoulder.

• Gomphosis: A type of joint where a tooth is anchored into its socket.

• Long bone and bone marking characteristics: Features such as epiphyses, diaphysis, and markings like tuberosities and foramina.

• Endosteum: Membrane lining the inner surface of bone.

• Fibrocartilage: Cartilage with dense collagen fibers, found in intervertebral discs.

• Lacunae: Small spaces housing osteocytes in bone tissue.

• Spongy bone: Porous bone tissue found at the ends of long bones.

Example: The femur is a long bone with a medullary cavity and spongy bone at its ends.

Muscle

Muscle Tissue and Function

Muscle tissues are responsible for movement, posture, and heat production. They have unique properties and structures.

• Purpose of tendons: Connect muscle to bone, transmitting force for movement.

• Four properties of all muscle tissues: Excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity.

• Abduction: Movement away from the midline of the body.

• Function of troponin: Regulates muscle contraction by controlling access of myosin to actin.

• Slow twitch fibers: Muscle fibers adapted for endurance and sustained activity.

• Location of sarcolemma: The cell membrane of a muscle fiber.

• Twain period: Likely refers to 'twitch period'—the time between stimulus and muscle contraction.

• Latent period: The brief delay between stimulus and contraction onset.

• Amphiarthrosis joints: Slightly movable joints (e.g., intervertebral discs).

• Action of gastrocnemius and soleus muscles: Plantar flexion of the foot.

Example: The biceps brachii contracts to flex the elbow joint.

Nervous System

Neural Control and Integration

The nervous system coordinates body activities through electrical and chemical signals.

• Complete tetany: Sustained muscle contraction without relaxation.

• Purpose of receptors: Detect stimuli and initiate neural responses.

• Parasympathetic nervous system: Part of the autonomic system; promotes 'rest and digest' functions.

• Function of medulla oblongata: Controls vital functions such as breathing and heart rate.

• Typical reflex arc: Pathway involving receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, and effector.

• Nerve that innervates the lateral rectus muscle of the eye: Abducens nerve (cranial nerve VI).

• Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) characterization: Hyperpolarization of the postsynaptic membrane, making neuron less likely to fire.

• Function of posterior or dorsal region of spinal cord: Transmits sensory information to the brain.

Example: Withdrawal reflex in response to pain.

Tissues

Types and Functions of Body Tissues

Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function, forming the basic building blocks of organs.

• Difference between epithelial tissues and connective tissues: Epithelial tissues cover surfaces and line cavities; connective tissues support and bind other tissues.

• Characteristics of simple cuboidal epithelium: Single layer of cube-shaped cells, found in glands and kidney tubules.

• Specialized connective tissues: Include bone, cartilage, blood, and lymph.

• Mesothelium: Epithelial tissue lining body cavities.

• Fibroblast: Cell that produces collagen and other fibers in connective tissue.

• Perichondrium: Dense layer surrounding cartilage.

Example: Simple squamous epithelium lines blood vessels.

Organ Systems

Integration and Transport

Organ systems work together to maintain homeostasis and transport substances throughout the body.

• Which systems transport throughout the body? Circulatory, lymphatic, and respiratory systems.

Example: Blood transports oxygen and nutrients to tissues.

Cells

Cellular Organization and Recycling

Cells are the basic units of life, capable of recycling materials and maintaining their own environment.

• Cellular organelle used to recycle materials: Lysosome.

Example: Lysosomes digest worn-out organelles.

Integumentary System

Skin and Associated Structures

The integumentary system protects the body and regulates temperature.

• Protein keratin: Provides strength and waterproofing to skin, hair, and nails.

• Dermis elements: Contains connective tissue, blood vessels, nerves, and glands.

• Function of arrector pili muscles: Cause hair to stand up (goosebumps).

Example: Sweat glands in the dermis help regulate body temperature.

Organism

Body Planes and Directional Terms

Understanding anatomical terminology is essential for describing locations and movements in the body.

• Body planes: Sagittal (left/right), frontal (anterior/posterior), transverse (superior/inferior).

• Directional terms: Superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal.

Example: The heart is medial to the lungs.

Exam Format and Grading

Final Exam Structure

The final exam covers all topics from the semester and consists of multiple-choice questions. Grading is based on the percentage of correct answers.

Percentage Correct	Points Awarded
90-100%	50 points
85-89%	49 points
80-84%	48 points
75-79%	47 points
70-74%	45 points
65-69%	43 points
60-64%	42.5 points
55-59%	40 points
50-54%	40 points
45-49%	37.5 points
40-44%	35 points
Less than 39%	30 out of 50 points

Additional info: The exam consists of 57 multiple-choice questions to be completed in 60 minutes.