BIO 207 Final Exam Study Guide: Anatomy & Physiology Comprehensive Review

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Neuro Unit Material

Brain and Spinal Cord

The brain and spinal cord are central components of the nervous system, responsible for processing and transmitting information throughout the body.

Dura mater: The tough, outermost membrane covering the brain and spinal cord, providing protection.
Primary Sensory Cortex location: Located in the postcentral gyrus of the parietal lobe; responsible for processing sensory information.
Ingredients of CSF: Cerebrospinal fluid contains water, electrolytes (Na+, K+, Cl-), glucose, and proteins.
Lumbar puncture procedure: A medical technique to collect CSF from the lumbar region for diagnostic purposes.
Function of Cerebrum: Controls higher brain functions such as thought, memory, and voluntary movement.
Location of cerebral aqueduct: Found in the midbrain, connecting the third and fourth ventricles.
Names for Wernicke’s Area: Also known as the posterior part of the superior temporal gyrus; involved in language comprehension.
Structures of Diencephalon: Includes the thalamus, hypothalamus, epithalamus, and subthalamus.
Function of Medulla oblongata: Regulates vital functions such as heart rate, breathing, and blood pressure.
Function of cerebellum: Coordinates voluntary movements and maintains balance and posture.
Acetylcholine is associated with which type of nervous system? Mainly the parasympathetic nervous system and somatic motor neurons.
Specialty cortexes within temporal lobe: Includes auditory cortex and olfactory cortex.
Function of limbic lobe and system: Controls emotions, memory, and motivation.
When is parasympathetic system active? During rest and digestion; promotes 'rest and digest' activities.

Eye

The eye is a complex organ responsible for vision, containing specialized cells and structures.

Rods and Cones are what type of cells? Photoreceptor cells in the retina; rods detect dim light, cones detect color.
Function of Lacrimal Apparatus: Produces and drains tears to lubricate and protect the eye.
Function and dysfunction of aqueous humor: Maintains intraocular pressure and nourishes the lens and cornea; dysfunction can lead to glaucoma.
Vision purple: Refers to the pigment rhodopsin in rods, which is sensitive to light.

Ear

The ear is responsible for hearing and balance, containing specialized structures.

Function of semicircular ducts: Detect rotational movements and help maintain balance.
Bones of middle ear: Malleus, incus, and stapes; transmit sound vibrations to the inner ear.

Nerve Cells

Nerve cells (neurons) transmit electrical signals; glial cells support neuron function.

Threshold stimuli: The minimum stimulus required to trigger an action potential.
Schwann cells: Glial cells in the peripheral nervous system that form myelin sheaths.
Repolarization phase of an action potential: The return of the membrane potential to its resting state, mainly due to K+ efflux.
Astrocytes: Glial cells in the CNS that support neurons and maintain the blood-brain barrier.
All or nothing principle: Once threshold is reached, an action potential fires completely.
Ependymal cells: Line the ventricles of the brain and produce CSF.

General Senses

General senses include sensations such as touch, pain, temperature, and proprioception.

What are general senses? Touch, pain, temperature, pressure, and proprioception.
What are not general senses? Special senses like vision, hearing, taste, and smell.
What senses does motion sickness trigger? Triggers vestibular (balance) and sometimes visual senses.

General Final Exam Topics

Chemistry

Chemistry is fundamental to understanding cell structure and function.

Charge of sub-atomic particles: Protons (+), neutrons (0), electrons (-).
Ionic bonds: Formed by the transfer of electrons between atoms, resulting in charged ions.
Covalent bonds: Formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system regulates body functions through hormones.

Hypothalamic-hypophyseal portal system: A network of blood vessels connecting the hypothalamus and anterior pituitary, allowing hormone transport.
Purpose of adrenal cortex: Produces steroid hormones (cortisol, aldosterone) for metabolism and electrolyte balance.
Synergism of hormones: When two hormones work together to produce a greater effect.
Why iodine is essential to hormone function: Required for synthesis of thyroid hormones.
Steroid hormone characteristics: Lipid-soluble, derived from cholesterol, act on intracellular receptors.
Glucagon and insulin relationship: Glucagon increases blood glucose; insulin decreases blood glucose.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis maintains stable internal conditions in the body.

Hormone responses to blood glucose: Insulin lowers, glucagon raises blood glucose levels.
What happens when your core body temperature decreases? Shivering, vasoconstriction, and increased metabolism occur to generate heat.
Positive feedback loop: A process where the response amplifies the original stimulus (e.g., childbirth).

Bone

Bones provide structure, protection, and facilitate movement.

Ossification: The process of bone formation.
Purpose of parathyroid gland: Regulates calcium levels in the blood.
What characteristic of bone allows the tissue to be resistant to shattering? Collagen fibers and mineralization.
Canaliculi: Small channels connecting osteocytes in bone tissue.
Gomphosis joint examples: Tooth in socket.
Sutural bones: Small bones found within sutures of the skull.
Long bone head bone marking characteristics: The head is a rounded, articular end of a long bone.
Location of meatus: Canal-like passageway, e.g., external auditory meatus in the skull.
Endosteum: Membrane lining the internal surface of bones.
Fibrocartilage: Tough, dense cartilage found in intervertebral discs and pubic symphysis.
Sphenoid bone: A complex bone at the base of the skull.
Location of Atlas: First cervical vertebra (C1) supporting the skull.

Muscle

Muscle tissue enables movement and force generation.

Purpose of tendons: Connect muscle to bone.
Four properties of all muscle tissues: Excitability, contractility, extensibility, elasticity.
Function of troponin: Regulates muscle contraction by binding calcium.
Abduction: Movement away from the midline.
Slow twitch fibers: Muscle fibers adapted for endurance.
Location of sarcolemma: The cell membrane of a muscle fiber.
Pronation: Rotation of the forearm so the palm faces down.
Latent period: Time between stimulus and muscle contraction.
Amphiarthrosis joints: Slightly movable joints (e.g., pubic symphysis).
Action of gastrocnemius and soleus muscles: Plantar flexion of the foot.
Complete tetany: Sustained muscle contraction without relaxation.

Nervous System

The nervous system coordinates body functions through electrical and chemical signals.

Purpose of nociceptors: Detect pain stimuli.
Parasympathetic nervous system: Controls 'rest and digest' activities.
Function of medulla oblongata: Regulates vital autonomic functions.
Typical reflex arc: Sensory neuron → interneuron → motor neuron.
Somatic nervous system: Controls voluntary movements.
Schwann cell location: Peripheral nervous system.
Nerve that innervates the lateral rectus muscle of the eye: Abducens nerve (CN VI).
Inhibitory postsynaptic potential (IPSP) characterization: Hyperpolarizes the postsynaptic membrane, making action potential less likely.
Function of posterior or dorsal region of spinal cord: Transmits sensory information to the brain.

Tissues

Tissues are groups of cells with similar structure and function.

Differences between epithelial tissues and connective tissues: Epithelial covers surfaces; connective supports and binds tissues.
Specialized connective tissues: Includes bone, cartilage, blood.
Characteristics of simple cuboidal epithelium: Single layer of cube-shaped cells; found in glands and kidney tubules.
Mesothelium: Epithelial tissue lining body cavities.
Fibrocytes: Mature cells in connective tissue that maintain the extracellular matrix.
Perichondrium: Dense connective tissue surrounding cartilage.

Organ Systems

Organ systems work together to maintain body function.

Which systems transport throughout the body? Circulatory and lymphatic systems.

Cells

Cells are the basic units of life, each with specialized organelles.

Cellular organelle used to recycle materials: Lysosome.

Integumentary System

The integumentary system protects the body and regulates temperature.

Protein keratin: Provides strength and waterproofing to skin, hair, and nails.
Dermis elements: Contains blood vessels, nerves, glands, and connective tissue.
Function of arrector pili muscles: Cause hair to stand up (goosebumps).

Organism

Body planes and directional terms are used to describe locations and movements in anatomy.

Body planes: Sagittal, coronal, transverse.
Directional terms: Anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, medial, lateral.

Exam Scoring Table

The exam scoring is based on the percentage of correct answers. Below is a summary table:

Score (%)	Points Awarded (out of 85)
75% or better	85
65%-74%	76.5
60%-64%	72.25
55%-59%	68
50%-54%	68
45%-49%	63.75
40%-44%	59.5
Less than 39%	51

Example: Action Potential Equation

The change in membrane potential during an action potential can be described by:

Where is the peak voltage and is the resting membrane potential.

Example: Homeostasis Feedback Loop

Positive feedback can be represented as:

Additional info: Academic context and definitions were added to brief points for completeness. This guide covers all major topics relevant to an Anatomy & Physiology college course as outlined in the provided study guide.