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BIOH 104 Final Exam Study Guide: Anatomy & Physiology Core Topics

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Final Exam Overview

This study guide outlines the major topics and subtopics covered in a college-level Anatomy & Physiology course, providing a structured review for final exam preparation. Each section corresponds to foundational chapters in Anatomy & Physiology, ensuring comprehensive coverage of the human body's structure and function.

The Human Body: An Orientation

Homeostasis, Positive and Negative Feedback

  • Homeostasis: The body's ability to maintain a stable internal environment despite external changes.

  • Negative Feedback: Mechanisms that counteract changes, returning the system to its set point (e.g., body temperature regulation).

  • Positive Feedback: Mechanisms that amplify changes (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth).

  • Receptors, Effectors, and Control Centers: Components involved in feedback loops.

  • Vocabulary: Terms such as anterior, posterior, superior, inferior.

Basic Chemistry

Properties of Atoms, Molecules, and Compounds

  • Atoms: Basic units of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

  • Molecules and Compounds: Molecules are two or more atoms bonded together; compounds are molecules with different elements.

  • Types of Chemical Bonds: Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

  • Dehydration Synthesis and Hydrolysis: Key reactions in biological systems.

Cells and Tissues

Cellular Organelles, Plasma Membrane, and Cytoskeleton

  • Organelles: Specialized structures within cells (e.g., nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum).

  • Plasma Membrane: Phospholipid bilayer controlling entry and exit of substances.

  • Cytoskeleton: Network of fibers providing structural support.

  • Types of Tissue: Epithelial, connective, muscle, and nervous tissue.

  • Functions of Tissue Junctions: Tight junctions, desmosomes, gap junctions.

Skin and Body Membranes

Structure and Function

  • Body Membranes: Cutaneous (skin), mucous, serous, and synovial membranes.

  • Functions: Protection, secretion, absorption, and sensation.

The Skeletal System

Cells, Functions, and Bone Types

  • Cells: Osteocytes, osteoblasts, osteoclasts.

  • Functions: Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation.

  • Bone Types: Compact vs. spongy bone; long, short, flat, irregular bones.

  • Bone Growth: Interstitial vs. appositional growth.

  • Calcium Homeostasis: Responses to hypocalcemia and hypercalcemia.

  • Fracture Types: Epiphyseal, diaphyseal, oblique, comminuted, greenstick.

The Muscular System

Microanatomy and Physiology

  • Microanatomy: Structure of skeletal muscle fibers.

  • Contraction and Relaxation: Sliding filament theory, role of actin and myosin.

  • Fiber Types: Slow-twitch vs. fast-twitch fibers.

  • Muscle Roles: Agonist, antagonist, synergist.

The Nervous System

Organization and Function

  • Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems: CNS (brain and spinal cord), PNS (nerves).

  • Autonomic Nervous System: Sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions.

  • Neurons: Structure and function; action potentials.

  • Synapses: Transmission of signals between neurons.

The Digestive System

Metabolism and Enzymes

  • Catabolism and Anabolism: Breakdown and synthesis of molecules.

  • Digestive Organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines, accessory organs.

  • Enzymes: Amylases, proteases, lipases.

  • Functions: Absorption, secretion, motility.

Blood

Components and Functions

  • Leukocytes: Types and functions (e.g., neutrophils, lymphocytes).

  • Hemostasis: Process of blood clotting.

  • Erythropoietin: Hormone stimulating red blood cell production.

The Cardiovascular System

Heart and Vessels

  • Arteries, Capillaries, Veins: Structure and function.

  • Cardiac Cycle: Sequence of heart contractions.

  • Cardiac Output:

  • ECG: Electrocardiogram interpretation.

  • Regulation: Intrinsic and extrinsic mechanisms of heart rate.

The Respiratory System

Gas Exchange and Regulation

  • pH Regulation: Role of respiration in acid-base balance.

  • Gas Exchange: Internal and external respiration.

  • Transport: Oxygen and carbon dioxide in blood.

  • Surfactant: Reduces surface tension in alveoli.

The Lymphatic System and Body Defenses

Immunity and Lymphatic Organs

  • Innate and Adaptive Immunity: Non-specific vs. specific defenses.

  • Lymphatic Organs: Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus.

  • Cells: T cells, B cells, macrophages.

  • Antibodies: Structure and function.

The Urinary System

Kidney Function and Water Balance

  • Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.

  • Nephron: Structure and function.

  • Water Conservation: Mechanisms of reabsorption.

The Endocrine System

Hormones and Disorders

  • Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands.

  • Mechanisms: Activation of second messenger systems.

  • Disorders: Diabetes mellitus, diabetes insipidus, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, Cushing's disease, Addison's disease.

Additional info:

  • Some topics, such as tissue identification using images, are not covered on the final exam.

  • Review all vocabulary and concepts for comprehensive understanding.

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