BIOLOGY 109: Comprehensive Study Guide for Anatomy and Physiology

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Subdivisions of Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body, while physiology focuses on the functions of those structures. Both are essential for understanding how the human body operates.

• Anatomy: Includes gross anatomy (structures visible to the naked eye), microscopic anatomy (cells and tissues), and developmental anatomy (changes throughout life).

• Physiology: Examines how organs and systems function, such as cardiovascular physiology or neurophysiology.

Body System Functions and Major Organs

• Major body systems: Examples include the circulatory, respiratory, digestive, nervous, and musculoskeletal systems.

• Key organs: Heart (circulatory), lungs (respiratory), stomach (digestive), brain (nervous), bones and muscles (musculoskeletal).

Directional Terms, Body Cavities, and Contents

• Directional terms: Anterior/posterior, superior/inferior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal.

• Body cavities: Dorsal (cranial and vertebral), ventral (thoracic and abdominopelvic).

• Contents: Organs such as the brain (cranial), lungs and heart (thoracic), digestive organs (abdominal).

Homeostasis and Feedback Loops

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Negative feedback: Reverses a change to maintain balance (e.g., temperature regulation).

• Positive feedback: Amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting).

Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life

Chemical Reactions

• Dehydration synthesis: Joins molecules by removing water.

• Hydrolysis: Splits molecules by adding water.

pH and Organic Macromolecules

• pH: Measures acidity or alkalinity; scale from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic).

• Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

• Functions: Energy storage (carbohydrates), cell structure (lipids), enzymes (proteins), genetic information (nucleic acids).

Enzymes

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

• Example: Amylase breaks down starch into sugars.

Chapter 3: The Cell

Organelle Functions

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material.

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP production.

• Endoplasmic reticulum: Protein and lipid synthesis.

• Golgi apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins.

Membrane Transport Mechanisms

• Passive transport: Diffusion, osmosis.

• Active transport: Requires energy (ATP).

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• Cell cycle: Interphase (growth), mitosis (division).

• Mitosis stages: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA to mRNA.

• Translation: mRNA to protein.

Chapter 4: Histology

Structure and Functions of Tissue Types

• Epithelial: Covers surfaces, lines cavities.

• Connective: Supports and binds tissues.

• Muscle: Movement.

• Nervous: Communication.

Membranes and Membrane-like Structures

• Types: Mucous, serous, cutaneous, synovial.

• Locations: Mucous (digestive tract), serous (body cavities), cutaneous (skin), synovial (joints).

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Functions and Structure of Skin

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation.

• Layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (deep).

Accessory Structures

• Hair: Protection and sensation.

• Nails: Protection.

• Glands: Sweat and sebaceous glands.

Chapter 6: Bones and Bone Tissue

Functions and Anatomy of Bone

• Functions: Support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation.

• Anatomy: Compact and spongy bone, diaphysis, epiphysis.

Ossification

• Endochondral: Bone forms from cartilage.

• Intramembranous: Bone forms from connective tissue.

Chapter 8: Articulations

Joint Types and Movements

• Fibrous: Immovable (e.g., sutures).

• Cartilaginous: Slightly movable (e.g., intervertebral discs).

• Synovial: Freely movable (e.g., knee).

• Synarthroses: Immovable.

• Amphiarthroses: Slightly movable.

• Diarthroses: Freely movable.

• Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction.

Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue and Physiology

Functions and Organization of Muscle

• Functions: Movement, posture, heat production.

• Organization: Muscle fiber, fascicle, muscle.

Excitation-Contraction Coupling

• Process: Action potential triggers calcium release, leading to contraction.

• Contraction cycle: Cross-bridge formation, power stroke, detachment, reactivation.

Tension Generation and Substrate Utilization

• Tension: Depends on muscle fiber length, frequency of stimulation, and number of fibers activated.

• Substrate utilization: ATP from creatine phosphate, glycolysis, aerobic respiration.

Types of Muscle Tissue

• Skeletal: Voluntary, striated.

• Cardiac: Involuntary, striated, intercalated discs.

• Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated.

Chapter 11: Introduction to the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

Organization and Terminology

• CNS: Brain and spinal cord.

• PNS: Nerves and ganglia.

• Neuron anatomy: Cell body, dendrites, axon.

• Functional classes: Sensory, motor, interneurons.

Neuroglial Cells

• Functions: Support, insulation, protection.

• Types: Astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, Schwann cells.

Electrophysiology

• Resting potential: Difference in charge across membrane.

• Depolarization: Membrane becomes less negative.

• Repolarization: Return to resting state.

• Hyperpolarization: Membrane becomes more negative.

• Action potential: Rapid change in membrane potential.

• Propagation: Movement of action potential along axon.

Synapses and Postsynaptic Potentials

• Chemical synapse: Neurotransmitter release.

• Electrical synapse: Direct ion flow.

• EPSP: Excitatory postsynaptic potential.

• IPSP: Inhibitory postsynaptic potential.

Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System

Brain Anatomy and Functions

• Cerebrum: Higher functions, sensory processing.

• Diencephalon: Thalamus (relay), hypothalamus (homeostasis).

• Midbrain, pons, medulla: Basic life functions.

• Cerebellum: Coordination.

Spinal Cord Anatomy and Physiology

• Horns: Gray matter regions.

• Roots: Sensory (dorsal), motor (ventral).

• Rami: Branches of spinal nerves.

• Funiculi: Columns of white matter.

Sensory and Motor Pathways

• Sensory: 1st, 2nd, 3rd order neurons.

• Motor: Upper and lower motor neurons.

Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System

Cranial and Spinal Nerves

• Cranial nerves: 12 pairs, sensory and motor functions.

• Spinal nerve formation: Roots combine to form nerves.

Nerve Plexuses and Sensory Receptors

• Plexuses: Cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral.

• Regions innervated: Limbs, neck, pelvis.

• Sensory receptors: Mechanoreceptors, thermoreceptors, nociceptors.

Reflex Arc and Specific Reflexes

• Reflex arc: Sensory input, integration, motor output.

• Specific reflexes: Stretch, Golgi tendon, flexor, crossed extensor.

Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System and Homeostasis

Comparison to Somatic Nervous System

• Somatic: Voluntary control, skeletal muscles.

• Autonomic: Involuntary, smooth/cardiac muscle, glands.

Parasympathetic vs. Sympathetic Divisions

• Parasympathetic: Rest and digest.

• Sympathetic: Fight or flight.

• Dual innervation: Both divisions affect organs.

• Autonomic tone: Baseline activity level.

Chapter 15: The Special Senses

Anatomy and Physiology of Senses

• Olfaction: Smell, olfactory epithelium.

• Gustation: Taste, taste buds.

• Vision: Eye anatomy, photoreceptors.

• Hearing: Ear anatomy, cochlea.

Chapter 16: The Endocrine System

Functions and Hormone Types

• Functions: Regulation of growth, metabolism, reproduction.

• Amino acid-based hormones: Water-soluble, act via second messengers.

• Steroid hormones: Lipid-soluble, act via direct gene activation.

Major Hormones

• Antidiuretic hormone (ADH): Water retention.

• Growth hormone (GH): Growth and metabolism.

• Thyroid hormones (T3/T4): Metabolic rate.

• Aldosterone: Sodium retention.

• Cortisol: Stress response.

• Epinephrine/Norepinephrine: Fight or flight.

• Erythropoietin: Red blood cell production.

• Renin-angiotensin system: Blood pressure regulation.

• Natriuretic peptides: Decrease blood pressure.

Additional info: The study guide covers the main topics and subtopics relevant to a college-level Anatomy and Physiology course, as outlined in the provided chapter list. The notes above expand on the brief points in the guide, providing definitions, examples, and context for each topic.