Chapter 2: Methods – Scientific Method, Research Ethics, and Research Design

Chapter 2: Methods

The Scientific Method

The scientific method is a systematic approach used in scientific research to investigate phenomena, acquire new knowledge, or correct and integrate previous knowledge. It is foundational to all scientific disciplines, including Anatomy & Physiology.

• Identify the problem: Clearly define the research question or issue to be studied.

• Gather information: Collect background information and review existing literature relevant to the problem.

• Generate a hypothesis: Formulate a testable prediction or explanation based on the gathered information.

• Design and conduct experiments: Plan and execute experiments to test the hypothesis, ensuring proper controls and variables.

• Analyze data and formulate conclusions: Use statistical methods to interpret the results and determine whether they support the hypothesis.

• Restart the process: Based on findings, refine the hypothesis or explore new questions, continuing the cycle of scientific inquiry.

Example: In physiology, a researcher might hypothesize that a certain hormone increases heart rate, design an experiment to test this, analyze the data, and then refine the hypothesis based on the results.

Research Ethics with Humans

Ethical considerations are essential in research involving human participants. The American Psychological Association (APA) outlines five key ethical principles to guide researchers:

• Principle A: Beneficence and Nonmaleficence – Strive to benefit participants and do no harm.

• Principle B: Fidelity and Responsibility – Establish relationships of trust and uphold professional standards of conduct.

• Principle C: Integrity – Promote accuracy, honesty, and truthfulness in science, teaching, and practice.

• Principle D: Justice – Ensure fairness and equity in the distribution of research benefits and burdens.

• Principle E: Respect for People’s Rights and Dignity – Respect the dignity and worth of all people, and the rights of individuals to privacy, confidentiality, and self-determination.

Special Ethical Considerations

Some research situations require additional ethical scrutiny, especially when participants are vulnerable or when the research design involves deception.

• Informed consent process: Participants must be fully informed about the study and voluntarily agree to participate. However, this process can sometimes influence participants' natural behavior.

• Deception: Some studies may require withholding information or misleading participants to maintain the integrity of the research. In such cases, ethical guidelines require that deception is justified and that participants are debriefed afterward.

Participants Unable to Give Informed Consent

• Decisional impairment: Individuals who cannot fully understand the research (e.g., children, cognitively impaired adults) require special protections.

  • Two criteria for participation:

    1. Informed consent from a parent or guardian

    2. Assent from the participant (agreement to participate to the extent possible)

• Situational vulnerability: Participants in situations that make them susceptible to coercion or exploitation (e.g., institutionalized individuals) require additional safeguards to prevent exploitation.

Historical Context: Unethical Research Studies

The Tuskegee Study

The Tuskegee Syphilis Study is a notorious example of unethical research that has significantly influenced modern research ethics.

• What went wrong?

  • Participants were not informed they had syphilis.

  • Treatment was deliberately withheld, even after effective therapy became available.

  • The study targeted poor, uneducated African American men, exploiting their vulnerability.

Impact: The study led to widespread reforms in research ethics, including the requirement for informed consent and the establishment of oversight bodies.

Canadian Context – Residential Schools and Nutrition Experiments

In Canada, unethical research was conducted on Indigenous children in residential schools, including nutrition experiments performed by government departments.

• Residential school system: Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and placed in government-run schools.

• Nutrition experiments: Researchers used these children to study the effects of malnutrition, often withholding adequate food and care.

• Unethical choices: These studies were conducted without consent and targeted already marginalized and vulnerable populations.

Call to Action: The Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada has highlighted these abuses and called for stronger ethical standards in research involving Indigenous peoples.

The Institutional Review Board (IRB)

The IRB is a committee responsible for reviewing research proposals to ensure they comply with ethical standards and protect participants' rights and welfare.

• Composition: At least five members from diverse backgrounds, including at least one non-scientist and one person unaffiliated with the institution.

• Role: Review research protocols, assess risks and benefits, and ensure informed consent procedures are adequate.

Research Methods

Research in Anatomy & Physiology and related fields employs various methods to collect and analyze data.

Descriptive Methods

• Naturalistic observation: Observing behavior in its natural environment without intervention. Hawthorne effect: Participants may change their behavior because they know they are being observed.

• Participant observation: The researcher becomes actively involved in the group being studied.

• Case study: In-depth analysis of a single individual or group.

• Survey: Collecting data from large groups using questionnaires or interviews.

Correlational Methods

• Examines the relationship between two or more variables without manipulating them.

• Cannot establish causation, only association.

Experimental Methods

• Test hypotheses: Manipulate one or more variables to determine their effect on other variables.

• Variables:

  • Independent variable: The variable manipulated by the researcher.

  • Dependent variable: The variable measured to assess the effect of the independent variable.

  • Extraneous (confounding) variables: Other variables that may influence the outcome and must be controlled.

• Comparing groups: Participants are assigned to different groups to test the effects of the independent variable.

Validity of Findings

• Internal validity: The degree to which results can be attributed to the independent variable rather than other factors (confounds).

• External validity: The degree to which results can be generalized to other people, settings, or times.

Analyzing Data

Descriptive Statistics – Central Tendency

• Mode: The most frequently occurring value in a data set.

• Median: The middle value when data are arranged in order.

• Mean: The arithmetic average of all values.

Descriptive Statistics – Spread of Data

• Range: The difference between the highest and lowest values.

• Variance: The average of the squared deviations from the mean. Formula: $\text{Variance} = \frac{\sum (x_i - \bar{x})^2}{N}$

• Standard deviation: The square root of the variance, representing the average distance of each data point from the mean. Formula: $\text{Standard deviation} = \sqrt{\text{Variance}}$

Example Calculation: For data values 4, 4, 9, 1, 16, the variance is $5.7$ and the standard deviation is $2.4$.

Inferential Statistics

• 5% rule: If the probability of an event is less than 5%, it is considered rare. This threshold is commonly used to determine statistical significance in hypothesis testing.

Application: In Anatomy & Physiology research, inferential statistics help determine whether observed differences between groups are likely due to the experimental manipulation or occurred by chance.