Lecture Final Exam Review

Final Exam Review: Anatomy & Physiology

Cellular Structure and Function

The study of anatomy and physiology begins with understanding the cell, the smallest unit of life, and its components.

• Cell: The basic structural and functional unit of all living organisms.

• Major Cell Parts: Nucleus (contains genetic material), Cytoplasm (site of cellular processes), Cell Membrane (regulates entry/exit of substances).

• Cellular Organelles: Mitochondria (energy production), Ribosomes (protein synthesis), Endoplasmic Reticulum (transport and synthesis), Golgi Apparatus (packaging and secretion).

• Example: Muscle cells contain many mitochondria to meet high energy demands.

Tissues & Histology

Tissues are groups of similar cells performing specific functions. There are four major tissue types in the human body.

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities; functions in protection, absorption, and secretion.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, binds, and protects organs; includes bone, cartilage, blood, and adipose tissue.

• Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement; includes skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.

• Nervous Tissue: Conducts electrical impulses; found in the brain, spinal cord, and nerves.

• Example: Adipose tissue stores energy and insulates the body.

Body Organization and Terminology

Understanding anatomical terminology is essential for describing locations and relationships in the body.

• Planes of the Body: Sagittal (divides left/right), Frontal (divides front/back), Transverse (divides top/bottom).

• Directional Terms: Proximal (closer to point of attachment), Distal (farther from point of attachment).

• Body Cavities: Thoracic (contains heart and lungs), Abdominal (digestive organs), Pelvic (reproductive organs).

• Example: The elbow is distal to the shoulder but proximal to the wrist.

Integumentary System

The integumentary system includes the skin, hair, nails, and associated glands, serving as the body's first line of defense.

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis.

• Layers of Skin: Epidermis (outer), Dermis (middle), Hypodermis (deepest).

• Cells: Keratinocytes (produce keratin), Melanocytes (produce melanin).

• Example: Sweat glands help regulate body temperature through evaporation.

Skeletal System

The skeletal system provides support, protection, and movement, and is composed of bones, cartilage, and joints.

• Bone Types: Long, short, flat, irregular, sesamoid.

• Bone Structure: Compact bone (dense), Spongy bone (porous).

• Cells: Osteocytes (mature bone cells), Osteoblasts (build bone), Osteoclasts (break down bone).

• Joints: Classified by structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and function (immovable, slightly movable, freely movable).

• Example: The femur is a long bone; the patella is a sesamoid bone.

Muscular System

Muscle tissue enables movement, posture, and heat production. There are three types of muscle tissue.

• Skeletal Muscle: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones.

• Cardiac Muscle: Involuntary, striated, found in the heart.

• Smooth Muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, found in walls of organs.

• Muscle Contraction: Involves actin, myosin, troponin, and tropomyosin complexes.

• Example: Biceps brachii contracts to flex the forearm.

Nervous System

The nervous system controls and coordinates body activities through electrical and chemical signals.

• Central Nervous System (CNS): Brain and spinal cord.

• Peripheral Nervous System (PNS): Cranial and spinal nerves.

• Neurons: Sensory (afferent), Motor (efferent), Interneurons.

• Neuroglia: Support cells (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, Schwann cells).

• Action Potential: Electrical impulse generated by movement of ions across the neuron membrane.

• Example: The sciatic nerve is the largest nerve in the body.

Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

The ANS regulates involuntary functions such as heart rate, digestion, and respiratory rate.

• Divisions: Sympathetic (fight or flight), Parasympathetic (rest and digest).

• Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine, norepinephrine.

• Example: Sympathetic stimulation increases heart rate; parasympathetic stimulation decreases it.

Special Senses

Special senses include vision, hearing, taste, smell, and equilibrium, each with specialized organs and pathways.

• Eye: Retina (photoreceptors), lens (focus), cornea (protection).

• Ear: Cochlea (hearing), semicircular canals (balance).

• Taste Buds: Located on the tongue, detect chemicals in food.

• Example: Rods and cones in the retina detect light and color.

Endocrine System

The endocrine system consists of glands that secrete hormones to regulate body functions.

• Major Glands: Pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads.

• Hormones: Chemical messengers that travel through the bloodstream.

• Example: Insulin regulates blood glucose levels.

Blood and Cardiovascular System

The cardiovascular system transports nutrients, gases, and wastes via blood, pumped by the heart through vessels.

• Blood Components: Red blood cells (oxygen transport), white blood cells (immune defense), platelets (clotting), plasma (fluid).

• Heart Chambers: Right/left atria, right/left ventricles.

• Vessels: Arteries (away from heart), veins (toward heart), capillaries (exchange).

• Example: The aorta is the largest artery in the body.

Lymphatic and Immune System

The lymphatic system returns fluid to the bloodstream and is involved in immune responses.

• Lymph Nodes: Filter lymph and house immune cells.

• Immune Cells: Lymphocytes, macrophages.

• Example: The spleen filters blood and helps fight infection.

Respiratory System

The respiratory system enables gas exchange between the body and the environment.

• Main Organs: Nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs.

• Gas Exchange: Occurs in alveoli of the lungs.

• Example: Oxygen diffuses from alveoli into capillaries; carbon dioxide diffuses out.

Digestive System

The digestive system breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, and eliminates waste.

• Main Organs: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, liver, pancreas.

• Enzymes: Amylase (carbohydrates), protease (proteins), lipase (fats).

• Example: The small intestine is the primary site of nutrient absorption.

Urinary System

The urinary system removes waste products and regulates fluid and electrolyte balance.

• Main Organs: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra.

• Nephron: Functional unit of the kidney; filters blood and forms urine.

• Example: The kidneys regulate blood pressure by controlling fluid volume.

Reproductive System

The reproductive system enables the production of offspring and includes primary and secondary sex organs.

• Male Organs: Testes, vas deferens, prostate, penis.

• Female Organs: Ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, vagina.

• Example: Ovaries produce eggs and hormones such as estrogen.

Human Development and Heredity

Human development covers growth from conception to adulthood, while heredity explains genetic inheritance.

• Growth: Involves cell division, differentiation, and maturation.

• Genetics: Genes are segments of DNA that determine traits.

• Example: Eye color is determined by multiple genes inherited from parents.

Key Equations and Concepts

• Resting Membrane Potential: $V_m = V_{inside} - V_{outside}$

• Osmosis: Movement of water from low solute concentration to high solute concentration.

• Muscle Contraction: $\text{Force} = \text{Mass} \times \text{Acceleration}$

• Cardiac Output: $\text{CO} = \text{HR} \times \text{SV}$ (Heart Rate × Stroke Volume)

Sample Table: Types of Muscle Tissue

Type	Location	Control	Appearance
Skeletal	Attached to bones	Voluntary	Striated
Cardiac	Heart	Involuntary	Striated
Smooth	Walls of organs	Involuntary	Non-striated

Additional info:

• Some content was inferred and expanded for completeness and clarity, based on standard Anatomy & Physiology curriculum.

• Questions in the original file were grouped and expanded into textbook-style notes for exam preparation.