Comprehensive Final Exam Review: Anatomy & Physiology II

Autonomic Nervous System

Parasympathetic vs. Sympathetic Nervous System Stimulation

The autonomic nervous system (ANS) regulates involuntary physiological functions. It is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic divisions, which often have opposing effects on target organs.

• Sympathetic Nervous System (SNS): Prepares the body for 'fight or flight' responses. Increases heart rate, dilates bronchioles, inhibits digestion, and stimulates glucose release.

• Parasympathetic Nervous System (PNS): Promotes 'rest and digest' activities. Decreases heart rate, stimulates digestion, and promotes energy storage.

• Neurotransmitters: SNS uses norepinephrine; PNS uses acetylcholine.

• Example: During exercise, the SNS increases heart rate and redirects blood flow to muscles, while the PNS predominates during relaxation and digestion.

Endocrine System (Ch. 17)

Endocrine vs. Exocrine Glands

• Endocrine glands: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (e.g., pituitary, thyroid).

• Exocrine glands: Release secretions through ducts to body surfaces or cavities (e.g., sweat, salivary glands).

Cell Signaling

• Hormones: Chemical messengers that regulate physiological processes.

• Upregulation: Increase in receptor number in response to low hormone levels.

• Down-regulation: Decrease in receptor number due to high hormone levels.

Major Hormones and Functions

• Blood Pressure Regulation: Aldosterone, ADH, and atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP).

• Gonadal Regulation: FSH, LH, estrogen, testosterone.

• Growth: Growth hormone (GH).

• Adrenaline: Epinephrine from adrenal medulla.

• Insulin: Lowers blood glucose; Diabetes: Disorder of insulin production or response.

Hypothalamus

• Links nervous and endocrine systems; controls pituitary gland.

Blood (Ch. 18)

Blood Composition and Properties

• pH: Normal range is 7.35–7.45.

• Blood Types: Determined by antigens (A, B, AB, O); Rh factor is either positive or negative.

• Universal Donor: O-; Universal Recipient: AB+.

• Hematocrit: Percentage of blood volume occupied by red blood cells.

Formed Elements

• Erythrocytes (RBCs): Transport oxygen; biconcave shape; no nucleus.

• Leukocytes (WBCs): Immune defense; five types with distinct characteristics and counts.

• Platelets: Cell fragments involved in clotting.

Plasma and Proteins

• Plasma: Liquid matrix; contains water, proteins (albumin, globulins, fibrinogen), nutrients, hormones.

• Erythropoietin: Hormone from kidneys stimulating RBC production.

The Heart (Ch. 19)

Cardiac Anatomy and Physiology

• Trace a Drop of Blood: Vena cava → right atrium → right ventricle → pulmonary artery → lungs → pulmonary vein → left atrium → left ventricle → aorta.

• Systole: Contraction phase; Diastole: Relaxation phase.

• Depolarization/Repolarization: Electrical changes during heart contraction/relaxation.

Conduction System

• SA node → AV node → Bundle of His → Purkinje fibers.

• ECG: Records electrical activity; P wave (atrial depolarization), QRS complex (ventricular depolarization), T wave (ventricular repolarization).

Heart Rate

• Normal adult rate: 60–100 bpm.

Blood Vessels (Ch. 20)

Anatomy and Nomenclature

• Arteries: Carry blood away from heart; Veins: Return blood to heart; Capillaries: Exchange vessels.

• Tunics: Three layers—intima, media, externa.

• Pulse: Pressure wave from ventricular contraction.

Lymphatic & Immune System (Ch. 21)

Lymphatic Vessel Anatomy and Organs

• Vessels: Collect and return interstitial fluid to blood.

• Organs: Lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils.

Immunoglobulins

• Antibodies produced by B cells; five classes (IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD).

Respiratory System (Ch. 22)

Anatomy

• Nasal cavity, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs, alveoli.

Respiratory Distress Syndrome

• Common in premature infants; due to insufficient surfactant production.

Digestive System (Ch. 23)

Anatomy of Teeth and Alimentary Canal

• Teeth: Incisors, canines, premolars, molars.

• Alimentary Canal: Mouth → pharynx → esophagus → stomach → small intestine → large intestine → anus.

Motility and Functions

• Peristalsis: Wave-like muscle contractions moving food.

• Segmentation: Mixing movements in intestines.

• Heartburn: Acid reflux into esophagus.

• Functions: Esophagus (transport), stomach (digestion), small intestine (absorption), large intestine (water absorption).

Metabolism & Nutrition (Ch. 24)

Macromolecules and Cellular Respiration

• Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids.

• Cellular Respiration: Process of ATP production from glucose.

Vitamins

• Major Categories: Fat-soluble (A, D, E, K) and water-soluble (B, C).

Urinary System (Ch. 25)

Anatomy and Functions

• Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra; regulate blood pressure and volume.

• Urine Characteristics: Color, clarity, pH, specific gravity.

• Urea: Nitrogenous waste from protein metabolism.

Nephron Structure and Function

• Glomerulus: Capillary network for filtration.

• Bowman's Capsule: Surrounds glomerulus.

• Nephron: Functional unit; filtration, reabsorption, secretion.

Hormonal Regulation

• ADH: Promotes water reabsorption.

• Aldosterone: Increases sodium reabsorption.

Autoregulation and GFR

• Autoregulation: Maintains stable glomerular filtration rate (GFR) despite BP changes.

Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Balance (Ch. 26)

Body Fluids and Forces

• Fluids: Intracellular, extracellular (interstitial, plasma).

• Hydrostatic Pressure: Pushes fluid out of capillaries.

• Osmotic Pressure: Pulls fluid into capillaries.

Electrolytes and Disorders

• Major Electrolytes: Sodium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, chloride, phosphate.

• Imbalances can cause arrhythmias, muscle weakness, seizures, etc.

Acid-Base Balance

• Blood pH: Maintained at 7.35–7.45.

• Acidosis: pH < 7.35; Alkalosis: pH > 7.45.

• Respiratory vs. Metabolic: Disorders classified by origin (lungs or metabolism).

Reproductive System (Ch. 27)

Semen and Reproductive Anatomy

• Semen: Contains sperm, seminal fluid, enzymes, and nutrients.

• Male Anatomy: Testes, epididymis, vas deferens, prostate, penis.

• Female Anatomy: Ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina.

Hormones and Gametogenesis

• Androgens: Male sex hormones (e.g., testosterone); target organs include testes, muscle, bone.

• Spermatogenesis: Sperm production in seminiferous tubules.

• Oogenesis: Egg production in ovaries.

• Spermiogenesis: Maturation of spermatids into spermatozoa.

• Meiosis: Cell division producing gametes with half the chromosome number.

Development (Ch. 28)

Germ Layers and Embryonic Development

• Germ Layers: Ectoderm, mesoderm, endoderm; give rise to all tissues and organs.

• Blastocyst: Early embryonic structure; implants in uterus.

• Placenta: Organ for nutrient/gas exchange between mother and fetus.

• Chorion and Amnion: Extraembryonic membranes; chorion forms placenta, amnion encloses embryo in fluid.

Chromosomes

• Humans have 46 chromosomes (23 pairs); carry genetic information.

Summary Table: Major Hormones and Their Functions

Hormone	Source	Main Function
Insulin	Pancreas (beta cells)	Lowers blood glucose
Glucagon	Pancreas (alpha cells)	Raises blood glucose
ADH	Posterior pituitary	Water reabsorption in kidneys
Aldosterone	Adrenal cortex	Increases sodium reabsorption
Growth Hormone	Anterior pituitary	Stimulates growth
Epinephrine	Adrenal medulla	Fight or flight response
Estrogen/Testosterone	Ovaries/Testes	Regulate reproductive function

Key Equations

• Cellular Respiration (Overall): $C_6H_{12}O_6 + 6O_2 \rightarrow 6CO_2 + 6H_2O + ATP$

• Blood Pressure: $BP = CO \times TPR$ Where CO = cardiac output, TPR = total peripheral resistance

• Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR): $GFR = K_f \times (P_{GC} - P_{BS} - \pi_{GC})$ Where $K_f$ = filtration coefficient, $P_{GC}$ = glomerular capillary pressure, $P_{BS}$ = Bowman’s space pressure, $\pi_{GC}$ = oncotic pressure in glomerular capillaries

Additional info: Some explanations and examples were expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard Anatomy & Physiology II curriculum.