Comprehensive Study Guide: Anatomy & Physiology Exam Review

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Divisions and Study of Anatomy

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. It can be divided into:

  • Gross (macroscopic) anatomy: Study of large body structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., regional, systemic, surface anatomy).

  • Microscopic anatomy: Study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye (e.g., cytology, histology).

  • Other divisions: Developmental anatomy, radiographic anatomy, pathological anatomy.

• Physiology is the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.

Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical level → Cellular level → Tissue level → Organ level → Organ system level → Organismal level

Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries, movement, responsiveness, digestion, metabolism, excretion, reproduction, growth.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Basic process involves: Receptor (detects change), Control center (determines set point), Effector (responds to change).

• Feedback mechanisms: Negative feedback (most common, reduces stimulus), Positive feedback (enhances stimulus).

Anatomical Terminology

• Directional terms (anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, etc.)

• Body planes (sagittal, frontal, transverse)

Chemical Level of Organization

Atoms, Elements, and Bonds

• Atoms are the smallest units of matter; elements are pure substances composed of one type of atom.

• Energy exists as kinetic or potential; chemical energy is stored in bonds.

• Bonds:

  • Covalent bonds: Sharing of electrons (can be polar or nonpolar).

  • Ionic bonds: Transfer of electrons (cation vs. anion).

  • Hydrogen bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.

Acids, Bases, and pH

• Acids release H+; bases release OH-.

• pH scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; lower pH = more acidic.

• Buffers: Substances that minimize changes in pH.

Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.

• Lipids: Fats, oils, steroids; energy storage, insulation.

• Proteins: Amino acids, polypeptides; structure, enzymes, signaling.

• Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA; genetic information.

Chemical Bonds and Energy

• Valence electrons determine chemical bonding.

• Octet rule: Atoms are most stable with 8 electrons in their outer shell.

The Cellular Level of Organization

Cell Membrane Structure and Function

• Phospholipid bilayer: Hydrophilic heads, hydrophobic tails; self-assembles into membranes.

• Membrane proteins: Peripheral, integral; functions include transport, signaling, cell recognition.

• Carbohydrates: Cell recognition and adhesion.

Membrane Transport

• Passive transport: No energy required (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).

• Active transport: Requires energy (primary uses ATP directly, secondary uses gradients).

• Endocytosis/Exocytosis: Bulk transport into/out of cell.

Cell Organelles

• Nucleus: Contains DNA, controls cell activities.

• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Rough ER (protein synthesis), Smooth ER (lipid synthesis).

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis.

• Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts, packages proteins/lipids.

• Lysosomes/peroxisomes: Digestion and detoxification.

• Mitochondria: ATP production (cellular respiration).

The Tissue Level of Organization

What is a Tissue?

• Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Four primary types: Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

Epithelial Tissue

• Characteristics: Polarity, specialized contacts, avascular, regeneration.

• Classified by layers (simple, stratified) and shape (squamous, cuboidal, columnar).

Connective Tissue

• Types: Connective tissue proper, cartilage, bone, blood.

• Functions: Support, protection, transport, energy storage.

• Cells: Fibroblasts, chondrocytes, osteocytes, adipocytes, etc.

Muscle Tissue

• Types: Skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

• Functions: Movement, posture, heat production.

Nervous Tissue

• Functions: Transmit electrical impulses, process information.

• Cells: Neurons, neuroglia.

Membranes and Tissue Repair

• Membranes: Cutaneous, mucous, serous.

• Tissue repair: Regeneration (replacement with same tissue), fibrosis (replacement with scar tissue).

The Integumentary System

Skin Structure

• Two main layers: Epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium), Dermis (connective tissue).

• Epidermal layers: Stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (thick skin), corneum.

• Dermal layers: Papillary (areolar CT, fingerprints), reticular (dense irregular CT, collagen fibers).

Skin Color and Functions

• Pigments: Melanin, carotene, hemoglobin.

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, metabolic functions, blood reservoir, excretion.

Skin Disorders

• Skin cancer: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma.

• Burns: Classified by depth (1st, 2nd, 3rd degree); critical if large percentage or certain areas affected.

Bones and Bone Structure

Cartilage and Bone Growth

• Types of cartilage: Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage.

• Growth: Appositional (width), interstitial (length).

Bone Structure

• Gross anatomy: Diaphysis, epiphyses, membranes.

• Microscopic anatomy: Osteons, lamellae, lacunae, canaliculi.

• Chemical composition: Organic (cells, osteoid), inorganic (hydroxyapatites).

Bone Development and Remodeling

• Ossification: Intramembranous (flat bones), endochondral (long bones).

• Remodeling: Bone deposition and resorption.

Joints

Classification and Function

• Structural: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.

• Functional: Synarthroses (immovable), amphiarthroses (slightly movable), diarthroses (freely movable).

• Synovial joints: Features include articular cartilage, joint cavity, synovial fluid, ligaments.

• Movements: Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, etc.

Muscle Tissue

Types and Structure

• Skeletal, cardiac, smooth muscle; differences in structure and function.

• Muscle fiber anatomy: Sarcolemma, sarcoplasm, myofibrils, sarcomeres.

• Sarcomere: Thick (myosin) and thin (actin, troponin, tropomyosin) filaments.

Muscle Contraction

• Sliding filament model: Myosin heads bind to actin, pulling filaments past each other.

• Excitation-contraction coupling: Role of calcium and ATP.

• Action potential: Depolarization, repolarization, propagation along sarcolemma.

Muscle Metabolism

• ATP sources: Creatine phosphate, anaerobic glycolysis, aerobic respiration.

• Muscle fatigue: Causes and recovery.

Nervous Tissue and System Organization

Neurons and Neuroglia

• Neurons: Excitable cells, transmit electrical signals.

• Neuroglia: Support, protect, and insulate neurons (astrocytes, oligodendrocytes, microglia, ependymal cells in CNS; Schwann cells, satellite cells in PNS).

Nerve Structure and Function

• Myelination: Increases speed of impulse conduction.

• Synapses: Junctions for communication between neurons.

Organization of the Nervous System

• CNS: Brain and spinal cord.

• PNS: Cranial and spinal nerves; sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent) divisions.

• Somatic vs. autonomic nervous system (ANS): Voluntary vs. involuntary control.

Action Potentials

• Resting membrane potential: Maintained by Na+/K+ pumps.

• Depolarization, repolarization, hyperpolarization.

• Graded vs. action potentials.

Central Nervous System Structure

• Major brain regions: Cerebrum (lobes and functions), diencephalon (thalamus, hypothalamus), brain stem (midbrain, pons, medulla), cerebellum.

• Functional areas: Motor, sensory, association areas.

• Lateralization and contralateral control.

Peripheral Nervous System

• Cranial nerves: 12 pairs, sensory/motor/mixed functions.

• Spinal nerves: Overlapping dermatomes, regions innervated.

Sensory Pathways and Receptors

• Receptor types: Exteroceptors, interoceptors, proprioceptors.

• Adaptation: Phasic vs. tonic receptors.

• Pain perception: Nociceptors, referred pain.

The Autonomic Nervous System (ANS)

Divisions and Functions

• Sympathetic: "Fight or flight"; short preganglionic, long postganglionic fibers.

• Parasympathetic: "Rest and digest"; long preganglionic, short postganglionic fibers.

• Neurotransmitters: Acetylcholine (cholinergic), norepinephrine (adrenergic).

• Receptors: Muscarinic, nicotinic, alpha, beta.

ANS Control

• Hypothalamus, brainstem, spinal cord regulate ANS activity.

Sample Table: Types of Bonds

Bond Type	How Formed	Relative Strength	Example
Covalent	Sharing electrons	Strong	H2O, O2
Ionic	Transfer of electrons	Moderate	NaCl
Hydrogen	Attraction between polar molecules	Weak	Between water molecules

Key Equations

• pH calculation:

$pH = -\log[H^+]$

• Resting Membrane Potential (Nernst Equation):

$E_{ion} = \frac{RT}{zF} \ln \frac{[ion]_{out}}{[ion]_{in}}$

• ATP Hydrolysis:

$ATP + H_2O \rightarrow ADP + P_i + \text{energy}$

Additional info:

• This study guide is based on an exam outline and covers the foundational chapters of a typical Anatomy & Physiology course, including introductory concepts, chemistry, cells, tissues, integumentary system, bones, joints, muscles, and the nervous system.

• Students should refer to their textbook for detailed diagrams and further examples.