Comprehensive Study Guide: Anatomy & Physiology I

{"type":"doc","content":[{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Levels of Organization"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The human body is organized in a hierarchical structure from the simplest to the most complex level. Understanding these levels is fundamental to the study of anatomy and physiology."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Atoms:"},{"type":"text","text":" The smallest units of matter (e.g., carbon, hydrogen)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Molecules:"},{"type":"text","text":" Combinations of atoms (e.g., water, glucose)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Organelles:"},{"type":"text","text":" Specialized structures within cells (e.g., mitochondria, nucleus)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cells:"},{"type":"text","text":" Basic units of life (e.g., muscle cell, neuron)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Tissues:"},{"type":"text","text":" Groups of similar cells performing a common function (e.g., epithelial tissue)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Organs:"},{"type":"text","text":" Structures composed of two or more tissue types (e.g., heart, liver)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Organ Systems:"},{"type":"text","text":" Groups of organs working together (e.g., digestive system)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Organism:"},{"type":"text","text":" The complete living being (the human body)."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" Muscle tissue (tissue level) is made of muscle cells (cellular level), which contain mitochondria (organelle level)."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Anatomical Position & Directional Terms"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Standard anatomical position is standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward. Directional terms describe locations and relationships between body parts."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Superior vs Inferior:"},{"type":"text","text":" Above vs below."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Anterior (ventral) vs Posterior (dorsal):"},{"type":"text","text":" Front vs back."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Medial vs Lateral:"},{"type":"text","text":" Toward midline vs away from midline."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Proximal vs Distal:"},{"type":"text","text":" Closer to trunk vs farther from trunk (used for limbs)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Superficial vs Deep:"},{"type":"text","text":" Toward surface vs away from surface."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sectional Planes"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sectional planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body for study."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Sagittal:"},{"type":"text","text":" Divides body into right and left parts."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Midsagittal:"},{"type":"text","text":" Divides body into equal right and left halves."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Frontal (Coronal):"},{"type":"text","text":" Divides body into anterior and posterior parts."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Transverse:"},{"type":"text","text":" Divides body into superior and inferior parts."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" The heart is anterior to the vertebral column and posterior to the sternum."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Body Cavities"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Body cavities protect organs and allow for changes in size and shape."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Dorsal Cavity:"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cranial cavity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains the brain."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Vertebral cavity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains the spinal cord."}]}]}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Ventral Cavity:"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Thoracic cavity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains heart and lungs."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Abdominal cavity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains digestive organs."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Pelvic cavity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains bladder, reproductive organs."}]}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Homeostasis"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. It is essential for survival and function."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Negative Feedback:"},{"type":"text","text":" A process that reverses a change to keep a variable within a set range (e.g., body temperature, blood glucose)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Positive Feedback:"},{"type":"text","text":" A process that amplifies a change (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth)."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Example:"},{"type":"text","text":" When body temperature rises, mechanisms such as sweating are activated to cool the body (negative feedback)."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Chemical Level of Organization"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organic Molecules"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organic molecules are carbon-based compounds essential for life. There are four major groups:"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Carbohydrates:"},{"type":"text","text":" Main energy source; includes monosaccharides (glucose), polysaccharides (glycogen)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lipids:"},{"type":"text","text":" Energy storage and membrane structure; includes triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Proteins:"},{"type":"text","text":" Made of amino acids; serve as enzymes, structural components."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nucleic Acids:"},{"type":"text","text":" DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Biological Reactions"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Dehydration Synthesis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Joins molecules by removing water."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hydrolysis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Breaks molecules apart by adding water."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Catabolism:"},{"type":"text","text":" Breaks down molecules, releasing energy."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Anabolism:"},{"type":"text","text":" Builds larger molecules from smaller ones."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate)"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"ATP:"},{"type":"text","text":" The immediate energy source for cellular work."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"ATP is produced during cellular respiration and used for muscle contraction, active transport, etc."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Equation:"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":" \\mathrm{ATP} \\rightarrow \\mathrm{ADP} + \\mathrm{P_i} + \\text{energy} "}}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Cellular Level of Organization"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Plasma Membrane"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier composed of a phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins and cholesterol."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Phospholipid Bilayer:"},{"type":"text","text":" Provides fluidity and barrier function."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Membrane Proteins:"},{"type":"text","text":" Serve as channels, receptors, enzymes."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cholesterol:"},{"type":"text","text":" Stabilizes membrane fluidity."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Glycoproteins:"},{"type":"text","text":" Involved in cell recognition."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Membrane Transport"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Diffusion:"},{"type":"text","text":" Movement of molecules from high to low concentration."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Facilitated Diffusion:"},{"type":"text","text":" Uses transport proteins for movement down the gradient."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Osmosis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Diffusion of water toward higher solute concentration."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Active Transport:"},{"type":"text","text":" Movement against the gradient, requires ATP and protein pumps."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Solution Types:"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hypotonic:"},{"type":"text","text":" Lower solute concentration outside; cell swells."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Isotonic:"},{"type":"text","text":" Equal solute concentration; no net movement."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hypertonic:"},{"type":"text","text":" Higher solute concentration outside; cell shrinks."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organelles"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organelles are specialized structures within cells, each with specific functions."}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nucleus:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains DNA, controls cell activities."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Ribosomes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Protein synthesis."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Rough ER:"},{"type":"text","text":" Protein modification and transport."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Smooth ER:"},{"type":"text","text":" Lipid synthesis, detoxification."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Golgi Apparatus:"},{"type":"text","text":" Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lysosomes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Digestive enzymes for waste breakdown."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Peroxisomes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Break down fatty acids, detoxify."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Mitochondria:"},{"type":"text","text":" ATP production (cellular respiration)."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Membrane-bound organelles:"},{"type":"text","text":" Nucleus, ER, Golgi, lysosomes, peroxisomes, mitochondria."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cell Cycle"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Interphase:"},{"type":"text","text":" Period of cell growth, DNA replication, and protein synthesis."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cytokinesis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Division of cytoplasm (does not occur during interphase)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Tissue Level of Organization"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Four Tissue Types"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Epithelial Tissue:"},{"type":"text","text":" Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Connective Tissue:"},{"type":"text","text":" Supports, protects, binds other tissues."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Muscle Tissue:"},{"type":"text","text":" Produces movement."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nervous Tissue:"},{"type":"text","text":" Transmits electrical impulses."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Epithelial Tissue Classification"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Type"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Shape"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Layers"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Location"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Function"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Simple Squamous"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Flat"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Single"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Alveoli, capillaries"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Diffusion"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Simple Cuboidal"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cube"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Single"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Kidney tubules"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Secretion, absorption"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Simple Columnar"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Tall"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Single"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Digestive tract"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Absorption"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stratified Squamous"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Flat"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Multiple"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Skin, mouth"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Protection"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pseudostratified"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Varied"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Single (appears multi)"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Respiratory tract"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Secretion, movement"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Transitional"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Varied"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Multiple"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bladder"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stretching"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Connective Tissue Types"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Bone:"},{"type":"text","text":" Support, protection."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Blood:"},{"type":"text","text":" Transport of gases, nutrients."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cartilage:"},{"type":"text","text":" Flexible support."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Adipose:"},{"type":"text","text":" Stores fat."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Dense Connective:"},{"type":"text","text":" Tendons, ligaments."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Loose Connective:"},{"type":"text","text":" Underlies epithelia."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Muscle Tissue Types"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Type"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Control"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Striations"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Features"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Skeletal"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Voluntary"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Yes"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Multinucleated"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cardiac"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Involuntary"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Yes"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Intercalated discs"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Smooth"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Involuntary"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"No"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Dense bodies"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Nervous Tissue"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Neurons:"},{"type":"text","text":" Transmit electrical signals."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Neuroglia:"},{"type":"text","text":" Support and protect neurons."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Endocrine System"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Major Endocrine Glands"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hypothalamus"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pituitary"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Thyroid"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Parathyroid"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Adrenal"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pancreas"}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pineal"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormones"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Travel through blood to target cells."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Target cells must have specific receptors."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormones alter cellular activity (e.g., metabolism, growth)."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Major Hormones and Functions"}]},{"type":"table","content":[{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Hormone"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Source"}]}]},{"type":"tableHeader","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Function"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Insulin"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pancreas"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Lowers blood glucose"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Glucagon"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pancreas"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Raises blood glucose"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Aldosterone"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Adrenal cortex"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Regulates sodium and water"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"ADH"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pituitary"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Water retention"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Oxytocin"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pituitary"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Uterine contraction, milk ejection"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Thyroid hormones"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Thyroid"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Regulate metabolism"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Growth hormone"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Pituitary"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Stimulates growth"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"PTH"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Parathyroid"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Raises blood calcium"}]}]}]},{"type":"tableRow","content":[{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Calcitonin"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Thyroid"}]}]},{"type":"tableCell","attrs":{"colspan":1,"rowspan":1,"colwidth":null},"content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Lowers blood calcium"}]}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Negative feedback"},{"type":"text","text":" regulates most hormone levels."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Nervous System"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Brain Structure and Function"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Frontal lobe:"},{"type":"text","text":" Voluntary movement, planning."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Parietal lobe:"},{"type":"text","text":" Somatic sensation."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Temporal lobe:"},{"type":"text","text":" Hearing, auditory cortex."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Occipital lobe:"},{"type":"text","text":" Vision."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hypothalamus:"},{"type":"text","text":" Regulates temperature, hunger, thirst, endocrine system."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Limbic system:"},{"type":"text","text":" Memory, emotions."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sulci and Fissures"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Central sulcus:"},{"type":"text","text":" Separates frontal and parietal lobes."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lateral sulcus:"},{"type":"text","text":" Separates temporal lobe."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Longitudinal fissure:"},{"type":"text","text":" Divides cerebral hemispheres."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Transverse fissure:"},{"type":"text","text":" Separates cerebrum from cerebellum."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Protection of the Brain"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Skull:"},{"type":"text","text":" Bony protection."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Meninges:"},{"type":"text","text":" Dura mater, arachnoid mater, pia mater."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF):"},{"type":"text","text":" Cushions brain."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Blood-brain barrier:"},{"type":"text","text":" Regulates substance entry."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Subdural space:"},{"type":"text","text":" Between dura and arachnoid."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Subarachnoid space:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains CSF."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Cranial Nerves"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Optic:"},{"type":"text","text":" Vision."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Oculomotor:"},{"type":"text","text":" Eye movement."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Trigeminal:"},{"type":"text","text":" Facial sensation, chewing."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Facial:"},{"type":"text","text":" Facial expression, taste."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Vestibulocochlear:"},{"type":"text","text":" Hearing, balance."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Glossopharyngeal:"},{"type":"text","text":" Taste, swallowing."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Vagus:"},{"type":"text","text":" Parasympathetic control of organs."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Reflexes"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Reflex arc:"},{"type":"text","text":" Pathway for reflex action."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Monosynaptic:"},{"type":"text","text":" One synapse (e.g., knee-jerk)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Polysynaptic:"},{"type":"text","text":" Multiple synapses."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Acquired reflexes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Learned responses."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Action Potentials"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Resting membrane potential:"},{"type":"text","text":" -70 mV, maintained by Na+/K+ pump."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Depolarization:"},{"type":"text","text":" Na+ influx."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Repolarization:"},{"type":"text","text":" K+ efflux."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hyperpolarization:"},{"type":"text","text":" Membrane potential becomes more negative."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Conduction speed:"},{"type":"text","text":" Increased by myelination and larger axon diameter."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Equation:"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"inlineMath","attrs":{"latex":" \\text{Na}^+ / \\text{K}^+ \\text{ pump:} \\ 3\\ \\text{Na}^+ \\ \\text{out},\\ 2\\ \\text{K}^+ \\ \\text{in} "}}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Synapse"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Presynaptic neuron:"},{"type":"text","text":" Releases neurotransmitter."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Synaptic cleft:"},{"type":"text","text":" Gap between neurons."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Postsynaptic membrane:"},{"type":"text","text":" Receives signal."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Special Senses"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Eye Anatomy"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Cornea:"},{"type":"text","text":" Transparent, refracts light."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Sclera:"},{"type":"text","text":" White, protective outer layer."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Choroid:"},{"type":"text","text":" Vascular layer."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Retina:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains photoreceptors."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Macula:"},{"type":"text","text":" Central vision."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Fovea centralis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Sharpest vision."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Optic disc:"},{"type":"text","text":" Blind spot."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lens:"},{"type":"text","text":" Focuses light."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Iris:"},{"type":"text","text":" Controls pupil size."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Pupil:"},{"type":"text","text":" Light entry."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Ear Anatomy"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"External ear:"},{"type":"text","text":" Collects sound."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Middle ear:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains ossicles (malleus, incus, stapes)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Inner ear:"},{"type":"text","text":" Cochlea (hearing), semicircular canals (equilibrium)."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Organ of Corti:"},{"type":"text","text":" Sensory organ for hearing."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Scala vestibuli & scala tympani:"},{"type":"text","text":" Fluid-filled chambers in cochlea."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hearing vs Equilibrium:"},{"type":"text","text":" Cochlea is for hearing; semicircular canals for balance."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Muscular System"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Organization of Skeletal Muscle"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Muscle → Fascicle → Muscle fiber → Myofibril → Sarcomere"}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sarcomere Structure"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Z discs:"},{"type":"text","text":" Define sarcomere boundaries."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Actin:"},{"type":"text","text":" Thin filament."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Myosin:"},{"type":"text","text":" Thick filament."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"A band:"},{"type":"text","text":" Length of myosin."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"I band:"},{"type":"text","text":" Actin only."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"H zone:"},{"type":"text","text":" Myosin only."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"M line:"},{"type":"text","text":" Center of sarcomere."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Sliding Filament Theory"}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Describes how muscles contract: myosin heads bind to actin, pulling filaments past each other, shortening the sarcomere."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Muscle Contraction"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Motor unit:"},{"type":"text","text":" One motor neuron and all muscle fibers it controls."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Recruitment:"},{"type":"text","text":" Increasing number of active motor units."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Twitch:"},{"type":"text","text":" Single contraction."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Tetanus:"},{"type":"text","text":" Sustained contraction."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Isometric:"},{"type":"text","text":" Tension without shortening."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Isotonic:"},{"type":"text","text":" Tension with shortening."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Connective Tissue Coverings"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Endomysium:"},{"type":"text","text":" Surrounds each muscle fiber."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Perimysium:"},{"type":"text","text":" Surrounds fascicles."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Epimysium:"},{"type":"text","text":" Surrounds entire muscle."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Energy Sources for Muscle"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"ATP:"},{"type":"text","text":" Immediate energy."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Creatine phosphate:"},{"type":"text","text":" Rapid ATP regeneration."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Anaerobic glycolysis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Produces ATP without oxygen."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Muscle fatigue"},{"type":"text","text":" results from ATP depletion, lactic acid buildup."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Tendons, Ligaments, and Aponeuroses"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Tendons:"},{"type":"text","text":" Connect muscle to bone."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Ligaments:"},{"type":"text","text":" Connect bone to bone."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Aponeuroses:"},{"type":"text","text":" Broad, flat tendons."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Integumentary System"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Skin Layers"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Epidermis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Outer layer, protection."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Dermis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Middle layer, contains nerves, blood vessels."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hypodermis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Deepest, fat storage."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Accessory Structures"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Hair:"},{"type":"text","text":" Protection, sensation."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Nails:"},{"type":"text","text":" Protect fingertips."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Sebaceous glands:"},{"type":"text","text":" Secrete oil."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Sweat glands:"},{"type":"text","text":" Thermoregulation."}]}]}]},{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Major skin functions:"},{"type":"text","text":" Protection, sensation, temperature regulation, vitamin D synthesis."}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"The Skeletal System"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bone Structure"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Diaphysis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Shaft of long bone."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Epiphysis:"},{"type":"text","text":" Ends of long bone."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Medullary cavity:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains marrow."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Articular cartilage:"},{"type":"text","text":" Covers joint surfaces."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Periosteum:"},{"type":"text","text":" Outer covering."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Endosteum:"},{"type":"text","text":" Lines medullary cavity."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Interior Bone Organization"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Osteons:"},{"type":"text","text":" Structural units of compact bone."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Central canal:"},{"type":"text","text":" Contains blood vessels."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lamellae:"},{"type":"text","text":" Concentric rings."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Canaliculi:"},{"type":"text","text":" Small channels for nutrient exchange."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Lacunae:"},{"type":"text","text":" Spaces for osteocytes."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bone Cells"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Osteoblasts:"},{"type":"text","text":" Build bone."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Osteocytes:"},{"type":"text","text":" Maintain bone."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Osteoclasts:"},{"type":"text","text":" Break down bone."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bone Growth"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Endochondral ossification:"},{"type":"text","text":" Bone forms from cartilage."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Intramembranous ossification:"},{"type":"text","text":" Bone forms from membrane."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Epiphyseal plate:"},{"type":"text","text":" Growth plate."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Epiphyseal line:"},{"type":"text","text":" Remnant after growth ends."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Appositional growth:"},{"type":"text","text":" Bone thickening."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Bone Markings"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Olecranon fossa, greater trochanter, condyles, tuberosities, processes, foramina:"},{"type":"text","text":" Sites for muscle attachment, articulation, or passage of vessels/nerves."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Vertebrae"}]},{"type":"bulletList","content":[{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Atlas (C1):"},{"type":"text","text":" Supports skull, allows nodding."}]}]},{"type":"listItem","content":[{"type":"paragraph","attrs":{"textAlign":null},"content":[{"type":"text","marks":[{"type":"bold"}],"text":"Axis (C2):"},{"type":"text","text":" Allows head rotation."}]}]}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":2},"content":[{"type":"text","text":"Joints"}]},{"type":"heading","attrs":{"textAlign":null,"level":3},"content"