Comprehensive Study Guide: Anatomy & Physiology Final Exam Topics

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Skeletal muscle is composed of bundles of muscle fibers, each containing myofibrils made up of sarcomeres—the basic contractile units.

Sarcomere Anatomy: The sarcomere is defined by Z-lines and contains thick (myosin) and thin (actin) filaments.
Transverse Tubules (T-tubules): Invaginations of the sarcolemma that help transmit action potentials into the muscle fiber.
Latent Period: The brief delay between stimulus and muscle contraction.
Motor Unit: A motor neuron and all the muscle fibers it innervates.
Isotonic vs. Isometric Contraction: Isotonic contractions change muscle length, while isometric contractions maintain length but increase tension.

Example: Lifting a weight involves isotonic contraction; holding a weight steady involves isometric contraction.

Reflexes are automatic, rapid responses to stimuli, mediated by neural pathways called reflex arcs.

Crossed Extensor Reflex: A withdrawal reflex where the opposite limb compensates for the action.
Integration Centers: Most reflexes are integrated in the spinal cord; some in the brain.
Autonomic Reflexes: Involve smooth muscle, cardiac muscle, or glands.

Mean Arterial Pressure (MAP): Average pressure in arteries during one cardiac cycle.
Factors that Increase Blood Pressure: Increased cardiac output, peripheral resistance, blood volume.
Factors Affecting Blood Flow to Tissues: Vessel diameter, blood viscosity, pressure gradients.
Parameters Associated with Increased Blood Pressure: Vasoconstriction, increased heart rate, increased blood volume.

Perfusion: The process of delivering blood to capillary beds.
Endothelium: The inner lining of blood vessels.
ECG (Electrocardiogram): Records the electrical activity of the heart.
Frank-Starling Law: The strength of the heart's contraction is directly proportional to its initial length (preload).
Cardiac Output: The volume of blood pumped by the heart per minute.

Intercalated Discs: Specialized connections between cardiac muscle cells for synchronized contraction.
Chordae Tendineae: Tendinous cords that anchor heart valves.
Artery vs. Veins: Arteries carry blood away from the heart; veins return blood to the heart.
Platelets: Cell fragments involved in blood clotting.

Type I and Type II Alveolar Cells: Type I cells form the alveolar wall; Type II cells secrete surfactant.
Surfactant: Reduces surface tension in alveoli, preventing collapse.
Pulmonary Ventilation: Movement of air into and out of the lungs.
Dalton's Law: The total pressure of a mixture of gases is the sum of the partial pressures of each gas.
Boyle's Law: Pressure and volume of a gas are inversely related at constant temperature.

Functions of the Kidney: Filtration, reabsorption, secretion, and excretion of waste.
Erythropoietin: Hormone produced by kidneys to stimulate red blood cell production.
Juxtaglomerular Cells: Specialized cells that regulate blood pressure via renin secretion.
Location of Primary Osmoreceptors: Hypothalamus.
RAAS (Renin-Angiotensin-Aldosterone System): Regulates blood pressure and fluid balance.
ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone): Promotes water reabsorption in kidneys.

Cells of the Stomach and Their Products: Parietal cells (HCl), chief cells (pepsinogen), mucous cells (mucus).
Functions of Pancreas and Liver: Pancreas secretes digestive enzymes and hormones; liver produces bile.
Digestive Enzymes: Amylases (carbohydrates), lipases (fats), proteases (proteins).
Gastric Absorption: Absorption of nutrients in the stomach and intestines.
Pernicious Anemia: Caused by lack of intrinsic factor, leading to poor vitamin B12 absorption.

Fibrinolysis: Breakdown of fibrin in blood clots.
Angiogenesis: Formation of new blood vessels.
Inflammation: Body's response to injury or infection.
Chemotaxis: Movement of immune cells toward chemical signals.
Opsonization: Marking pathogens for phagocytosis.
Cells of the Immune Response: Includes lymphocytes, macrophages, neutrophils, etc.
Immunoglobulins (5 Types): IgG, IgA, IgM, IgE, IgD; each has specific functions in immunity.
Allergy Response: Immune reaction to harmless antigens.

Immunoglobulin Type	Main Function
IgG	Major antibody in blood; provides long-term immunity
IgA	Found in mucosal areas; protects body surfaces
IgM	First antibody produced in response to infection
IgE	Involved in allergic reactions
IgD	Functions mainly as a receptor on B cells

Review of Anatomy: Includes organs such as testes, ovaries, uterus, and associated ducts.
Meiosis: Cell division producing gametes with half the chromosome number.
SRY Gene: Sex-determining region on Y chromosome; initiates male development.
Development of Embryo: Fertilization, cleavage, implantation, and organogenesis.
Mullerian Ducts: Develop into female reproductive tract.
Wolffian Ducts: Develop into male reproductive tract.
Role of FSH/LH: Follicle-stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone regulate gametogenesis and hormone production.
Menstrual Cycle: Ovarian and uterine phases regulate female fertility.
Spermatogenesis: Production of sperm in testes.
Spermiogenesis: Final maturation of sperm.
Interstitial (Leydig) Cells: Produce testosterone in testes.
Sertoli Cells: Support and nourish developing sperm.

Acid-Base Disorders: Vomiting, diarrhea, hyperventilation, and emphysema can disrupt acid-base balance.
Location of Primary Osmoreceptors: Hypothalamus (regulates thirst and ADH release).
Functions of the Kidney: Regulation of electrolytes, acid-base balance, and blood pressure.