Comprehensive Study Guide for Anatomy & Physiology (BIOLOGY 109)

Chapter 1: Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Subdivisions of Anatomy & Physiology, Body Organization, Homeostasis

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Physiology is the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.

• Levels of organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. It is regulated by negative feedback mechanisms (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Directional terms (anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, etc.) and body planes (sagittal, frontal, transverse) are essential for describing locations in the body.

Chapter 2: The Chemistry of Life

Chemical Reactions, Bonds, pH, Organic Molecules

• Atoms bond to form molecules via ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds.

• pH measures hydrogen ion concentration; acids have pH < 7, bases > 7.

• Major organic molecules: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

• Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions without being consumed.

Chapter 3: The Cell

Cell Structure, Membrane Transport, Cell Division

• Cells are the basic unit of life. Major organelles: nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes.

• Plasma membrane controls movement of substances via passive (diffusion, osmosis) and active transport (pumps, endocytosis).

• Cell division includes mitosis (somatic cells) and meiosis (gametes).

Chapter 4: Histology

Types of Tissues

• Four basic tissue types: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

• Epithelial tissue covers surfaces and lines cavities; classified by cell shape and layers.

• Connective tissue supports, protects, and binds other tissues (e.g., bone, blood, adipose).

• Muscle tissue contracts to produce movement; types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

• Nervous tissue transmits electrical impulses; main cells are neurons and neuroglia.

Chapter 5: The Integumentary System

Skin Structure and Function

• Skin layers: epidermis (stratified squamous epithelium), dermis (connective tissue), hypodermis (adipose tissue).

• Functions: protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis.

• Accessory structures: hair, nails, glands (sebaceous, sweat).

Chapter 6: Bones and Bone Tissue

Bone Structure, Function, and Growth

• Bone functions: support, protection, movement, mineral storage, blood cell formation.

• Types of bone: compact and spongy.

• Bone cells: osteoblasts (build bone), osteoclasts (break down bone), osteocytes (maintain bone).

• Bone growth: endochondral and intramembranous ossification.

Chapter 7: The Skeletal System

Axial and Appendicular Skeleton, Bone Markings

• Axial skeleton: skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.

• Appendicular skeleton: limbs and girdles.

• Bone markings: projections, depressions, and openings for muscle attachment and passage of vessels/nerves.

Chapter 8: Articulations

Joint Classification and Function

• Joints (articulations) classified by structure (fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial) and function (synarthrosis, amphiarthrosis, diarthrosis).

• Synovial joints: freely movable, contain synovial fluid (e.g., knee, shoulder).

• Movements: flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation, circumduction.

Chapter 9: The Muscular System

Muscle Organization and Function

• Muscle groups: agonist (prime mover), antagonist, synergist, fixator.

• Muscle naming: location, size, shape, direction of fibers, number of origins, attachments, action.

Chapter 10: Muscle Tissue and Physiology

Muscle Contraction and Types

• Muscle contraction: sliding filament theory (actin and myosin interaction).

• Neuromuscular junction: site where motor neuron stimulates muscle fiber.

• Types of muscle contractions: isotonic (muscle changes length), isometric (muscle length unchanged).

Chapter 11: Introduction to the Nervous System and Nervous Tissue

Neurons, Neuroglia, Nerve Impulses

• Neurons: cell body, dendrites, axon; transmit electrical signals.

• Neuroglia: support and protect neurons.

• Action potential: rapid change in membrane potential that travels along the axon.

Chapter 12: The Central Nervous System

Brain and Spinal Cord Structure and Function

• Major brain regions: cerebrum, diencephalon, brainstem, cerebellum.

• Spinal cord: conducts impulses to and from the brain; center for reflexes.

• Protective coverings: meninges, cerebrospinal fluid.

Chapter 13: The Peripheral Nervous System

Nerves and Ganglia

• PNS: cranial nerves, spinal nerves, ganglia.

• Divisions: sensory (afferent) and motor (efferent).

Chapter 14: The Autonomic Nervous System and Homeostasis

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Divisions

• Autonomic nervous system (ANS): regulates involuntary functions (heart rate, digestion, etc.).

• Sympathetic division: "fight or flight"; Parasympathetic division: "rest and digest".

Chapter 15: The Special Senses

Vision, Hearing, Taste, Smell, Equilibrium

• Special senses: vision (eye), hearing and equilibrium (ear), taste (tongue), smell (nose).

• Receptors: photoreceptors, mechanoreceptors, chemoreceptors.

Chapter 16: The Endocrine System

Hormones and Glands

• Endocrine glands secrete hormones into the bloodstream to regulate body functions.

• Major glands: pituitary, thyroid, adrenal, pancreas, gonads.

Chapter 17: The Cardiovascular System I: The Heart

Heart Structure and Function

• Heart chambers: right/left atria, right/left ventricles.

• Valves: atrioventricular (tricuspid, bicuspid/mitral), semilunar (pulmonary, aortic).

• Blood flow: body → right heart → lungs → left heart → body.

Chapter 18: The Cardiovascular System II: The Blood Vessels

Types of Blood Vessels and Circulation

• Arteries (carry blood away from heart), veins (to heart), capillaries (exchange).

• Systemic and pulmonary circulation.

Chapter 19: Blood

Components and Functions of Blood

• Blood components: plasma, red blood cells (erythrocytes), white blood cells (leukocytes), platelets (thrombocytes).

• Functions: transport, regulation, protection.

Chapter 20: The Lymphatic System and Immunity

Lymphatic Organs and Immune Response

• Lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, spleen, thymus, tonsils.

• Immunity: innate (nonspecific) and adaptive (specific) defenses.

Chapter 21: The Respiratory System

Respiratory Tract and Gas Exchange

• Major structures: nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, lungs.

• Gas exchange occurs in alveoli by diffusion.

• Respiratory volumes: tidal volume, vital capacity, etc.

Chapter 22: The Digestive System

Digestive Tract and Accessory Organs

• Major organs: mouth, pharynx, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, rectum, anus.

• Accessory organs: salivary glands, liver, gallbladder, pancreas.

• Functions: ingestion, digestion, absorption, elimination.

Chapter 23: Metabolism and Nutrition

Metabolic Pathways and Nutrients

• Metabolism: all chemical reactions in the body.

• Catabolism (breakdown) and anabolism (synthesis).

• Major nutrients: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, minerals, water.

Chapter 24: The Urinary System

Kidney Structure and Function

• Major organs: kidneys, ureters, urinary bladder, urethra.

• Nephron: functional unit of the kidney; filters blood, forms urine.

Chapter 25: Fluids, Electrolytes, and Acid-Base Homeostasis

Body Fluid Compartments and Balance

• Fluid compartments: intracellular, extracellular (interstitial, plasma).

• Electrolytes: ions that help regulate fluid balance (Na+, K+, Ca2+, etc.).

• Acid-base balance: maintained by buffers, respiratory and renal mechanisms.

Chapter 26: The Reproductive System

Male and Female Reproductive Anatomy and Physiology

• Male: testes, ducts, accessory glands, penis.

• Female: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, external genitalia.

• Gametogenesis: spermatogenesis (male), oogenesis (female).

Chapter 27: Development and Heredity

Fertilization, Embryonic Development, Genetics

• Fertilization: union of sperm and egg to form zygote.

• Embryonic development: cleavage, gastrulation, organogenesis.

• Genetics: inheritance patterns, DNA structure, gene expression.