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Comprehensive Study Guide for Anatomy & Physiology (ANP) Final Review

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Unit 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy is the study of the structure of the body, while physiology focuses on the functions and processes of those structures.

  • Anatomy: Examines the physical structures, such as organs, tissues, and cells.

  • Physiology: Investigates how anatomical structures operate and interact.

  • Example: Studying the heart's chambers (anatomy) and how they pump blood (physiology).

Levels of Organization

The human body is organized hierarchically from simple to complex structures.

  • Chemical level: Atoms and molecules

  • Cellular level: Cells and their organelles

  • Tissue level: Groups of similar cells

  • Organ level: Structures composed of multiple tissue types

  • Organ system level: Groups of organs working together

  • Organism level: The complete living being

Organ System Functions

Each organ system has specific functions essential for survival.

  • Example: The respiratory system exchanges gases; the digestive system processes nutrients.

Planes, Regions, and Position Terms

Body planes and regions help describe locations and directions in anatomy.

  • Planes: Sagittal (left/right), frontal (anterior/posterior), transverse (superior/inferior)

  • Regions: Abdominal, thoracic, pelvic, etc.

  • Position terms: Anterior, posterior, superior, inferior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment.

  • Negative feedback: Counteracts changes (e.g., temperature regulation)

  • Positive feedback: Amplifies changes (e.g., blood clotting)

Unit 2: Chemical Level of Organization

Potential and Kinetic Energy

Energy is essential for physiological processes.

  • Potential energy: Stored energy (e.g., chemical bonds)

  • Kinetic energy: Energy of motion (e.g., muscle contraction)

Types of Chemical Reactions

  • Synthesis:

  • Decomposition:

  • Exchange:

Water in the Body

Water is vital for chemical reactions, temperature regulation, and transport.

  • Properties: Solvent, high heat capacity, participates in hydrolysis and dehydration reactions

Acids, Bases, Buffers

  • Acids: Release H+ ions

  • Bases: Accept H+ ions

  • Buffers: Stabilize pH

  • Acidosis: pH < 7.35; Alkalosis: pH > 7.45

Organic Compounds and Functional Groups

  • Carbohydrates: Energy source; monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides

  • Lipids: Fats, oils, phospholipids, steroids

  • Proteins: Structure, enzymes, transport

  • Enzymes: Biological catalysts; lower activation energy

  • DNA and RNA: Genetic material; DNA stores information, RNA transmits it

  • Functional groups: Hydroxyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate

Unit 3: Cellular Level of Organization

ECF and ICF

Body fluids are divided into extracellular fluid (ECF) and intracellular fluid (ICF).

  • ECF: Fluid outside cells (e.g., plasma, interstitial fluid)

  • ICF: Fluid within cells

Plasma Membrane and Organelles

  • Plasma membrane: Phospholipid bilayer; regulates entry/exit

  • Organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria, ER, Golgi, lysosomes, etc.

Cellular Respiration

Cellular respiration produces ATP from glucose.

  • Equation:

Transcription and Translation

  • Transcription: DNA → mRNA in nucleus

  • Translation: mRNA → protein at ribosome

Transport Mechanisms

  • Passive: Diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion

  • Active: Requires ATP; pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis

  • Hypotonic: Lower solute; cell swells

  • Hypertonic: Higher solute; cell shrinks

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

  • Phases: Interphase (G1, S, G2), Mitosis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase)

Unit 4: Tissue Level of Organization

Four Primary Tissue Types

The body is composed of four main tissue types, each with distinct functions and locations.

  • Epithelial: Covers surfaces; protection, absorption

  • Connective: Supports, binds, stores energy

  • Muscle: Movement

  • Nervous: Communication

Tissue Functions and Locations

  • Epithelial: Skin, lining of GI tract

  • Connective: Bone, blood, cartilage

  • Muscle: Skeletal, cardiac, smooth

  • Nervous: Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Unit 5: The Integumentary System

Epidermis Layers

  • Stratum basale (deepest)

  • Stratum spinosum

  • Stratum granulosum

  • Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)

  • Stratum corneum (outermost)

Dermis and Hypodermis

  • Dermis: Connective tissue; contains blood vessels, nerves

  • Hypodermis: Subcutaneous layer; fat storage

Accessory Structures of Skin

  • Hair, nails, glands (sebaceous, sweat)

Melanin and Carotene

  • Melanin: Pigment for skin color; protects against UV

  • Carotene: Yellow-orange pigment

Burns

  • First-degree: Epidermis only

  • Second-degree: Epidermis and part of dermis

  • Third-degree: Full thickness

Unit 6: Bones and Bone Structure

Diaphysis and Epiphysis

  • Diaphysis: Shaft of long bone

  • Epiphysis: Ends of long bone

Spongy and Compact Bone

  • Spongy bone: Trabeculae; lighter, found in epiphyses

  • Compact bone: Dense; forms diaphysis

Red and Yellow Bone Marrow

  • Red marrow: Hematopoiesis (blood cell formation)

  • Yellow marrow: Fat storage

Ossification and Remodeling

  • Endochondral ossification: Bone replaces cartilage

  • Intramembranous ossification: Bone forms from mesenchyme

  • Bone remodeling: Continuous process; regulated by hormones

  • Calcitonin: Lowers blood Ca2+; PTH: Raises blood Ca2+

Osteon Structure

  • Osteon: Structural unit of compact bone; central canal, lamellae, lacunae, canaliculi

Unit 7: Joints

Classes of Joints

  • Fibrous: Immovable

  • Cartilaginous: Slightly movable

  • Synovial: Freely movable

Synovial Joint Components

  • Articular cartilage, synovial membrane, joint cavity, ligaments

Movements

  • Flexion, extension, abduction, adduction, rotation

Unit 8: Skeletal Muscle Tissue

Three Types of Muscle

  • Skeletal: Voluntary, striated

  • Cardiac: Involuntary, striated

  • Smooth: Involuntary, non-striated

Muscle Structure

  • Fascia: Connective tissue covering

  • Fascicle: Bundle of muscle fibers

  • Myofibril: Contractile organelle

  • Myofilament: Actin (thin), myosin (thick)

  • Sarcomere: Functional unit; Z line to Z line

  • Sarcolemma: Muscle cell membrane

  • T tubule: Transmits action potential

  • Sarcoplasm: Cytoplasm of muscle cell

  • Sarcoplasmic reticulum: Stores Ca2+

Neuromuscular Junction

  • Site where motor neuron stimulates muscle fiber

  • Troponin and tropomyosin: Regulate contraction

Energy and Muscle Contraction

  • ATP, creatine phosphate, glycogen: Energy sources

  • Oxygen debt: Extra O2 needed after exercise

  • Lactic acid and fatigue: Byproducts of anaerobic metabolism

  • Isotonic: Muscle changes length

  • Isometric: Muscle tension without length change

  • Antagonist and agonist: Muscles with opposing actions

  • Atrophy: Decrease in muscle size

  • Hypertrophy: Increase in muscle size

Unit 9: Nervous Tissue

Neuron Parts

  • Dendrites: Receive signals

  • Cell body: Contains nucleus

  • Axon: Transmits signals

Resting Membrane Potential (RMP)

  • RMP: Voltage across membrane; typically -70 mV

Action Potential Phases

  • Depolarization: Na+ influx

  • Repolarization: K+ efflux

  • Hyperpolarization: Excess K+ outflow

EPSP and IPSP

  • EPSP: Excitatory postsynaptic potential

  • IPSP: Inhibitory postsynaptic potential

Refractory Period

  • Absolute: No new action potential

  • Relative: Possible with strong stimulus

Neurotransmitter and Neuromodulator

  • Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger

  • Neuromodulator: Modifies neurotransmitter action

Saltatory Conduction

  • Action potential jumps between nodes of Ranvier

Unit 10: The Brain and Sensory/Motor Pathways

Cerebrum and Cerebral Cortex

  • Cerebrum: Largest part; higher functions

  • Cerebral cortex: Outer layer; sensory, motor, association areas

Lobes and Functions

  • Frontal: Motor, reasoning

  • Parietal: Sensory

  • Temporal: Hearing

  • Occipital: Vision

Tracts, Basal Nuclei, Limbic System

  • Tracts: Bundles of axons

  • Basal nuclei: Motor control

  • Limbic system: Emotion, memory

Hypothalamus, Thalamus, Cerebellum, Reticular Formation, Brain Stem

  • Hypothalamus: Homeostasis, endocrine

  • Thalamus: Sensory relay

  • Cerebellum: Coordination

  • Reticular formation: Alertness

  • Brain stem: Midbrain, pons, medulla; vital functions

Meninges and CSF

  • Meninges: Dura, arachnoid, pia mater

  • CSF: Cerebrospinal fluid; cushions brain

Ascending & Descending Tracts

  • Ascending: Sensory pathways

  • Descending: Motor pathways

Unit 11: Central and Peripheral Nervous System

CNS and PNS

  • Central nervous system (CNS): Brain and spinal cord

  • Peripheral nervous system (PNS): Nerves outside CNS

Afferent and Efferent

  • Afferent: Sensory; toward CNS

  • Efferent: Motor; away from CNS

Autonomic Nervous System

  • Controls involuntary functions

  • Sympathetic: Fight or flight

  • Parasympathetic: Rest and digest

Dorsal and Ventral Roots/Horns

  • Dorsal root: Sensory input

  • Ventral root: Motor output

  • Dorsal horn: Sensory processing

  • Ventral horn: Motor neurons

  • Dorsal root ganglion: Cell bodies of sensory neurons

Reflex Arc

  • Components: Receptor, sensory neuron, integration center, motor neuron, effector

  • Example: Knee-jerk reflex

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