Comprehensive Study Guide for ANP College Final Exam Topics

Body Temperature

Normal Ranges and Measurement

Body temperature is a vital sign reflecting the balance between heat produced and lost by the body. It is measured in degrees Celsius (°C) or Fahrenheit (°F).

• Normal oral temperature: 37°C (98.6°F)

• Hypothermia: Below 35°C (95°F)

• Hyperthermia: Above 38°C (100.4°F)

• Regulation: Controlled by the hypothalamus

Definitions from Chapter

Key Terms

• Histology: The study of tissues

• Matrix: The extracellular material in tissues, such as cartilage

• Exocrine: Glands that secrete substances onto epithelial surfaces

• Endocrine: Glands that release hormones directly into the bloodstream

Cell and Its Organelles

Structure and Function

Cells are the basic units of life, containing specialized organelles for various functions.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA)

• Mitochondria: Site of ATP production

• Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER): Rough ER synthesizes proteins; Smooth ER synthesizes lipids

• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins

• Lysosomes: Digest cellular waste

• Phospholipids: Major component of cell membranes, forming a bilayer

Genetics

Basic Concepts

• Gene: Segment of DNA coding for a protein

• Chromosome: Structure containing DNA

• Allele: Variant form of a gene

• Inheritance: Transmission of genetic traits from parents to offspring

Bonds

Chemical Bonds in Biology

• Covalent Bond: Atoms share electrons

• Hydrogen Bond: Weak attraction between a hydrogen atom and another atom

• Ionic Bond: Transfer of electrons between atoms

Energy Storage in Compounds

Glucose and ATP

• Glucose: Stored as glycogen in liver and muscle

• ATP: Main energy currency of the cell

• Energy Storage Equation:

$\text{Glucose} + \text{O}_2 \rightarrow \text{CO}_2 + \text{H}_2\text{O} + \text{ATP}$

pH

Acidity and Alkalinity

• pH Scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration

• Acidic: pH < 7

• Neutral: pH = 7

• Basic (Alkaline): pH > 7

Tonicity

Effects on Cells

• Isotonic: No net movement of water

• Hypertonic: Water leaves cell; cell shrinks

• Hypotonic: Water enters cell; cell swells

Mitosis and Its Stages

Cell Division Process

• Mitosis: Division of a cell into two identical daughter cells

• Stages:

  • Prophase

  • Metaphase

  • Anaphase

  • Telophase

Matrix of Cartilage

Composition and Function

• Matrix: Gel-like substance with collagen and elastic fibers

• Function: Provides support and flexibility

Profile of Cartilage Types

Comparison of Cartilage

Type	Features	Location
Hyaline	Most common, glassy appearance	Joints, nose, trachea
Elastic	Flexible, contains elastic fibers	Ear, epiglottis
Fibrocartilage	Strong, contains collagen fibers	Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis

Location of Cartilage

Distribution in the Body

• Hyaline: Ends of long bones, nose, trachea

• Elastic: External ear, epiglottis

• Fibrocartilage: Intervertebral discs, menisci

Exocrine and Endocrine

Gland Types

• Exocrine: Secrete via ducts (e.g., sweat glands)

• Endocrine: Secrete hormones into blood (e.g., thyroid gland)

Layers of Skin

Structure of the Epidermis

• Stratum basale (deepest)

• Stratum spinosum

• Stratum granulosum

• Stratum lucidum (only in thick skin)

• Stratum corneum (outermost)

Cells Found in Skin Layers

Cell Types and Functions

• Keratinocytes: Produce keratin

• Melanocytes: Produce melanin pigment

• Langerhans cells: Immune defense

• Merkel cells: Sensory receptors

Profile of Skin Layers

Functions and Characteristics

• Basale lamina: Site of cell division

• Spinosum: Provides strength

• Granulosum: Keratinization begins

• Corneum: Protection

Types of Bone and Their Functions

Classification

• Compact bone: Dense, provides strength

• Spongy bone: Porous, contains marrow

Bone Cells Distribution and Function

Cell Types

• Osteoblasts: Build bone

• Osteocytes: Maintain bone

• Osteoclasts: Break down bone

Anatomy of Bone

Key Structures

• Diaphysis: Shaft of long bone

• Epiphysis: Ends of long bone

• Osteon: Structural unit of compact bone

• Periosteum: Membrane covering bone

• Lacunae: Spaces housing osteocytes

Hormones Affecting Bone Integrity

Regulation of Bone Metabolism

• Parathyroid hormone (PTH): Increases blood calcium

• Calcitonin: Lowers blood calcium

• Vitamin D: Promotes calcium absorption

Muscular Dystrophy

Definition and Effects

• Muscular dystrophy: Group of genetic diseases causing progressive muscle weakness

• Duchenne muscular dystrophy: Most common type

Muscle Fiber Distribution

Types of Muscle Fibers

• Slow-twitch (Type I): Endurance, aerobic

• Fast-twitch (Type II): Power, anaerobic

Mechanism of Muscle Contraction

Sequence of Events

• Calcium binds to troponin

• Troponin changes shape, moving tropomyosin

• Myosin binds to actin

• ATP hydrolysis powers contraction

Myoglobin

Definition and Function

• Myoglobin: Oxygen-binding protein in muscle

• Function: Stores and releases oxygen for muscle activity

Anatomy of Muscle

Structural Organization

• Epimysium: Surrounds entire muscle

• Perimysium: Surrounds fascicles

• Endomysium: Surrounds individual fibers

• Sarcomere: Functional unit of muscle contraction

• Muscle fibers: Individual muscle cells

Rigor Mortis

Definition and Cause

• Rigor mortis: Stiffening of muscles after death due to lack of ATP

Direct-Acting Neurotransmitters

Mechanism

• Direct-acting: Bind directly to receptors and open ion channels

• Example: Acetylcholine

Ohm’s Law in the Nervous System

Electrical Properties

• Ohm’s Law: $V = I \times R$

• Application: Voltage (V), current (I), resistance (R) in nerve conduction

Supporting Cells of the CNS

Types and Functions

• Ependymal cells: Line ventricles, produce cerebrospinal fluid

• Astrocytes: Support neurons

• Microglia: Immune defense

• Oligodendrocytes: Form myelin in CNS

Schwann Cells vs. Oligodendrocytes

Comparison

Cell Type	Location	Function
Schwann cells	PNS	Myelinate peripheral nerves
Oligodendrocytes	CNS	Myelinate central nerves

Neuron and Its Parts

Structure

• Cell body: Contains nucleus

• Dendrites: Receive signals

• Axon: Transmits signals

• Axon terminals: Release neurotransmitters

Arbor Vitae

Definition

• Arbor vitae: Tree-like white matter in cerebellum

• Function: Coordinates motor signals

Cranial Nerves

Location and Function

• 12 pairs: Emerge from brain

• Functions: Sensory, motor, or both

• Examples: Optic nerve (vision), Vagus nerve (parasympathetic control)

Fissures of the Brain

Major Divisions

• Longitudinal fissure: Separates hemispheres

• Lateral fissure: Separates temporal lobe

• Central sulcus: Separates frontal and parietal lobes

Cerebrospinal Fluid

Definition and Function

• Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF): Clear fluid in brain and spinal cord

• Function: Cushions, nourishes, removes waste

Sympathetic and Parasympathetic Systems

Autonomic Nervous System

• Sympathetic: "Fight or flight" response

• Parasympathetic: "Rest and digest" response

Rods and Cones (Eye)

Photoreceptor Types

• Rods: Detect dim light, black and white vision

• Cones: Detect color, bright light

Structures Controlling Light Entry

Eye Anatomy

• Iris: Regulates pupil size

• Pupil: Opening for light

• Ciliary body: Adjusts lens shape

Near, Far, and Normal Sight

Vision Terminology

• Myopic: Nearsighted; difficulty seeing far

• Hyperopic: Farsighted; difficulty seeing near

• Emmetropic: Normal vision

Taste Bud Distribution

Location

• Tongue: Most taste buds

• Soft palate, pharynx: Some taste buds

Olfactory Gland Function

Role in Smell

• Olfactory glands: Produce mucus for olfactory epithelium

• Function: Dissolves odorants for detection

Dark Adaptation

Definition

• Dark adaptation: Process by which eyes adjust to low light

• Rods: Become more sensitive