Comprehensive Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

Lecture 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Overview of Anatomy and Physiology

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms, including their systems, organs, tissues, and cells. It includes subfields such as cytology (study of cells), histology (study of tissues), regional anatomy (body regions), systemic anatomy (body systems), and surface anatomy (external features).

• Physiology is the study of the function of living organisms and their parts, focusing on how structures work together to support life.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Failure to maintain homeostasis can lead to disease or dysfunction.

• Examples of feedback loops:

  • Biological: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin (negative feedback).

  • Non-biological: Thermostat regulating room temperature.

Major Themes in Anatomy & Physiology

• Structure and function are closely related.

• Levels of organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

• Adaptation, natural selection, and evolution drive physiological diversity.

Characteristics of Life

• Organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, reproduction, and homeostasis.

Metabolism Equation

• Metabolism includes all chemical reactions in the body, summarized as: $\text{Catabolism} + \text{Anabolism} = \text{Metabolism}$

Hierarchical Organization

• Levels: chemical → cellular → tissue → organ → organ system → organism.

Tissue Types

• Four major types: epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

Cytology vs. Histology

• Cytology: Study of cells.

• Histology: Study of tissues.

Organs and Organ Systems

• Organ: Structure composed of at least two tissue types performing a specific function.

• 11 major organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.

Feedback Loops

• Negative feedback: Reduces the effect of the original stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive feedback: Enhances the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

Gradients and Communication

• Gradients (concentration, pressure, electrical) drive physiological processes.

• Cells communicate via chemical and electrical signals.

Lecture 2: Chemistry of Life

Atoms and Elements

• Atom: Smallest unit of matter retaining properties of an element.

• Subatomic particles: protons (+), neutrons (0), electrons (-).

• Atomic number: Number of protons.

• Atomic mass: Protons + neutrons.

Bonding and Chemical Properties

• Octet and duet rules: Atoms are stable with 8 (or 2) electrons in their outer shell.

• Ionic bonds: Transfer of electrons; covalent bonds: sharing of electrons.

• Electrolytes: Substances that dissociate into ions in water.

• Hydrophobic bonds are least likely to dissolve in water.

Lecture 3: Biochemistry and Energy

Types of Energy

• Kinetic, potential, chemical, electrical, mechanical, and radiant energy.

Reactions

• Endergonic: Absorb energy.

• Exergonic: Release energy.

• Anabolism (building up) vs. catabolism (breaking down).

Chemical Reactions

• Reactants → Products.

• Enzymes lower activation energy, increasing reaction rates.

• Water is the universal solvent due to its polarity.

pH and Buffers

• pH measures hydrogen ion concentration: $\text{pH} = -\log[\text{H}^+]$

• Buffers resist changes in pH.

Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

• Monomers and polymers: e.g., monosaccharides (glucose), amino acids, nucleotides.

• Dehydration synthesis (builds polymers), hydrolysis (breaks polymers).

Lecture 4: Macromolecules in Cells

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides, disaccharides, polysaccharides.

• Elemental ratio: C:H:O = 1:2:1.

Lipids

• Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.

Proteins

• Composed of amino acids; four levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.

• Functions: enzymes, structure, transport, signaling.

Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information.

Lecture 5: The Cell

Cell Theory

• All living things are composed of cells.

• Cells are the basic unit of life.

• All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Cell Structure

• Plasma membrane: phospholipid bilayer with proteins.

• Fluid mosaic model: dynamic arrangement of lipids and proteins.

• Glycocalyx: carbohydrate-rich area on cell surface for recognition.

Membrane Transport

• Passive (diffusion, osmosis) vs. active (requires energy, e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

• Tonicity: hypertonic, hypotonic, isotonic solutions.

Lecture 6: Organelles and Cell Function

Cell Organelles

• Nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes, cytoskeleton.

• Each organelle has a specific function (e.g., mitochondria produce ATP).

Lecture 7: The Nucleus and Genetic Material

Nucleus

• Control center of the cell; contains DNA.

• Chromatin (DNA + proteins) vs. chromosomes (condensed DNA during cell division).

DNA and RNA

• DNA replication: copying DNA before cell division.

• Central Dogma: DNA → RNA → Protein.

• Genes vs. genome: gene is a segment of DNA; genome is the entire set of genetic material.

Lecture 8: Protein Synthesis and Cell Cycle

Protein Synthesis

• Transcription: DNA → mRNA (in nucleus).

• Translation: mRNA → protein (in cytoplasm).

• Post-translational modification: changes to protein after synthesis.

Cell Cycle and Division

• Phases: interphase (G1, S, G2), mitosis, cytokinesis.

• Checkpoints regulate progression; programmed cell death (apoptosis) prevents cancer.

• Benign vs. malignant tumors; metastasis is the spread of cancer cells.

Summary Table: Major Macromolecules

Macromolecule	Monomer	Main Function	Example
Carbohydrate	Monosaccharide	Energy storage, structure	Glucose, starch
Lipid	Fatty acid, glycerol	Energy storage, membranes	Triglyceride, phospholipid
Protein	Amino acid	Enzymes, structure, transport	Hemoglobin, collagen
Nucleic Acid	Nucleotide	Genetic information	DNA, RNA

Additional info:

• This guide is based on a syllabus/learning outcomes document and covers foundational topics in Anatomy & Physiology, including cell biology, biochemistry, and genetics.

• For exam preparation, review each topic in detail using your textbook and class notes.