Comprehensive Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

Lecture 1: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

What is Anatomy and Physiology?

• Anatomy is the study of the structure of living organisms, including their systems, organs, tissues, and cells. It includes subfields such as cytology (study of cells), histology (study of tissues), regional anatomy (specific areas), systemic anatomy (organ systems), and surface anatomy (external features).

• Physiology is the study of the functions and processes of the body and its parts.

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis refers to the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Failure to maintain homeostasis can lead to disease or death.

• Feedback loops regulate homeostasis:

  • Negative feedback: Reduces the effect of a stimulus (e.g., body temperature regulation).

  • Positive feedback: Enhances the effect of a stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

Major Themes in Anatomy & Physiology

• Structure and function are closely related.

• Levels of organization: chemical, cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, organism.

Characteristics of Life

• Organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, reproduction, homeostasis.

Metabolism Equation

• Metabolism includes all chemical reactions in the body: $\text{Catabolism} + \text{Anabolism} = \text{Metabolism}$

Adaptation, Natural Selection, and Evolution

• Adaptation: Inherited characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival.

• Natural selection: Process by which organisms better adapted to their environment tend to survive and produce more offspring.

• Evolution: Change in the genetic composition of a population over generations.

Stimulus and Response

• Stimulus: Any change in the environment that elicits a response from an organism.

Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

Major Tissue Types

• Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous

Cytology vs. Histology

• Cytology: Study of cells

• Histology: Study of tissues

Organs and Organ Systems

• Organ: Structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function.

• 11 major organ systems: integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.

Feedback Loops

• Positive feedback: Amplifies change (e.g., labor contractions).

• Negative feedback: Counteracts change (e.g., blood glucose regulation).

Structure and Function

• Structure determines function; e.g., the shape of red blood cells allows them to carry oxygen efficiently.

Gradients

• Gradients (concentration, pressure, electrical) drive many physiological processes (e.g., diffusion, osmosis).

Cell Communication

• Cells communicate via chemical signals (hormones, neurotransmitters) and direct contact (gap junctions).

Lecture 2: Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Atoms and Elements

• Atom: Smallest unit of matter retaining properties of an element.

• Subatomic particles: proton (+), neutron (0), electron (-)

• Atomic number: Number of protons

• Atomic mass: Protons + neutrons

Subatomic Particles and Ions

• Protons and neutrons in nucleus; electrons in orbitals.

• Ions: Atoms that have gained or lost electrons (cations +, anions -).

Chemical Properties and Bonds

• Chemical properties determined by electron configuration.

• Types of bonds: ionic, covalent, hydrogen

• Ionic bond: Transfer of electrons

• Covalent bond: Sharing of electrons

• Hydrogen bond: Weak attraction between polar molecules

Octet and Duet Rules

• Atoms tend to fill their outermost shell with 8 electrons (octet rule) or 2 (duet rule for small atoms).

Electrolytes

• Substances that dissociate into ions in solution and conduct electricity (e.g., NaCl in water).

Solubility of Bonds

• Ionic bonds dissolve easily in water; covalent bonds less so; nonpolar covalent bonds are least likely to dissolve.

Lecture 3: Energy and Chemical Reactions

Types of Energy

• Kinetic energy: Energy of motion

• Potential energy: Stored energy

Endergonic vs. Exergonic Reactions

• Endergonic: Absorb energy

• Exergonic: Release energy

Anabolism vs. Catabolism

• Anabolism: Building up molecules (requires energy)

• Catabolism: Breaking down molecules (releases energy)

• Example: Cellular respiration (catabolic)

Chemical Reactions

• Reactants → Products

• Types: synthesis, decomposition, exchange

Organic vs. Inorganic Chemistry

• Organic: Contains carbon-hydrogen bonds (e.g., glucose)

• Inorganic: Lacks carbon-hydrogen bonds (e.g., water, salts)

Reaction Rates and Enzymes

• Factors: temperature, concentration, catalysts (enzymes)

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up reactions by lowering activation energy.

Water as a Universal Solvent

• Water dissolves many substances due to its polarity.

Hydrophobic vs. Hydrophilic

• Hydrophobic: Repels water (nonpolar)

• Hydrophilic: Attracts water (polar)

pH and Buffers

• pH: Measure of hydrogen ion concentration: $\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[H^+]$

• Buffers: Substances that minimize changes in pH.

Lecture 4: Macromolecules

Major Macromolecules

• Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids

Monomers and Polymers

• Monomers: building blocks (e.g., monosaccharides, amino acids, nucleotides)

• Polymers: chains of monomers (e.g., polysaccharides, proteins, DNA)

Dehydration Synthesis vs. Hydrolysis

• Dehydration synthesis: Joins monomers by removing water

• Hydrolysis: Breaks polymers by adding water

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), polysaccharides (glycogen, starch)

Lipids

• Types: triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids

• Properties: hydrophobic, energy storage, membrane structure

Proteins

• Composed of amino acids; structure determines function

• Levels of structure: primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary

Nucleic Acids

• DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information

Lecture 5: The Cell

Cell Theory

• All living things are composed of cells.

• Cells are the basic unit of life.

• All cells come from pre-existing cells.

Cell Structure

• Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus

• Fluid mosaic model: membrane is a flexible, dynamic structure with proteins embedded in a phospholipid bilayer.

Membrane Proteins

• Functions: transport, receptors, enzymes, cell recognition, attachment

Glycocalyx

• Carbohydrate-rich area on cell surface for protection and recognition

Transport Across Membranes

• Passive (diffusion, osmosis) vs. active (requires energy, e.g., pumps)

• Facilitated diffusion: uses channels or carriers

• Sodium-potassium pump: maintains electrochemical gradients

Tonicity

• Hypertonic: higher solute outside cell (cell shrinks)

• Hypotonic: lower solute outside cell (cell swells)

• Isotonic: equal solute

Lecture 6: Organelles and Cell Transport

Cell Organelles

• Nucleus: Contains DNA

• Mitochondria: ATP production

• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis

• Endoplasmic reticulum (ER): Protein and lipid synthesis

• Golgi apparatus: Modifies, sorts, packages proteins

• Peroxisomes: Break down fatty acids, detoxify

• Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes

Lecture 7: Cytoskeleton and Nucleus

Cytoskeleton

• Provides structure, support, movement

• Major fibers: microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules

• Specialized structures: cilia, flagella, microvilli

Nucleus

• Control center of the cell

• Contains chromatin (DNA + proteins), nucleolus (ribosome synthesis)

• Chromatin vs. chromosomes: chromatin is uncondensed, chromosomes are condensed for cell division

DNA Structure and Replication

• Double helix, complementary base pairing (A-T, C-G)

• Phosphodiester bonds link nucleotides

• Replication: DNA polymerase adds nucleotides in 5' to 3' direction

Lecture 8: Protein Synthesis and Cell Cycle

Central Dogma of Biology

• DNA → RNA → Protein

Transcription and Translation

• Transcription: DNA to mRNA (in nucleus)

• Translation: mRNA to protein (at ribosome)

• Codons (triplet code) specify amino acids

• Anticodons on tRNA match codons on mRNA

Post-Transcriptional Modification

• Splicing, 5' cap, poly-A tail (in eukaryotes)

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• Phases: G1, S (DNA replication), G2, M (mitosis, cytokinesis)

• Checkpoints regulate progression

• Programmed cell death: apoptosis

Tumors and Metastasis

• Benign: Non-cancerous, localized

• Malignant: Cancerous, can invade and metastasize

• Metastasis: Spread of cancer cells to distant sites

Summary Table: Major Macromolecules

Macromolecule	Monomer	Main Function	Example
Carbohydrate	Monosaccharide	Energy, structure	Glucose, starch
Lipid	Fatty acid, glycerol	Energy storage, membranes	Triglyceride, phospholipid
Protein	Amino acid	Structure, enzymes, transport	Hemoglobin, collagen
Nucleic Acid	Nucleotide	Genetic information	DNA, RNA

Additional info:

• This study guide is based on a comprehensive list of lecture topics and learning outcomes for a college-level Anatomy & Physiology course. It is designed to provide foundational knowledge and context for further study.