Comprehensive Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

This study guide covers foundational concepts in Anatomy & Physiology, including definitions, major themes, and the organization of the human body. It is structured according to key lecture topics and learning outcomes.

What is Anatomy and Physiology?

• Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. Includes subfields such as cytology (study of cells), histology (study of tissues), regional, systemic, and surface anatomy.

• Physiology: The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery—how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities.

Major Themes in Anatomy & Physiology

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment. Disruption can lead to disease. Feedback Loops: Mechanisms that maintain homeostasis. Examples: Biological (body temperature regulation), Non-biological (thermostat in a house).

• Levels of Organization: Hierarchical structure from chemical level (atoms, molecules) to cellular, tissue, organ, organ system, and organism levels.

• Characteristics of Life: Organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, development, reproduction, and homeostasis.

Cellular and Chemical Foundations

Atoms, Molecules, and Chemical Bonds

• Atom: Basic unit of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in the nucleus.

• Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

• Ions: Atoms or molecules with a net electric charge due to loss or gain of electrons.

• Types of Bonds: Ionic, covalent, and hydrogen bonds. Example: NaCl (ionic), H2O (covalent), DNA base pairs (hydrogen bonds).

• Octet Rule: Atoms tend to gain, lose, or share electrons to achieve eight electrons in their valence shell.

Macromolecules and Chemical Reactions

• Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

• Dehydration Synthesis: Formation of larger molecules from smaller ones by removal of water.

• Hydrolysis: Breakdown of larger molecules into smaller ones by addition of water.

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy.

• pH and Buffers: pH measures hydrogen ion concentration; buffers help maintain stable pH in the body.

Cell Structure and Function

Cell Theory and Components

• Cell Theory: All living things are composed of cells; the cell is the basic unit of life; all cells arise from pre-existing cells.

• Major Cell Components: Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus, organelles (mitochondria, ribosomes, ER, Golgi apparatus, lysosomes, peroxisomes).

• Fluid Mosaic Model: Describes the structure of the plasma membrane as a mosaic of components that gives the membrane a fluid character.

Membrane Transport

• Passive Transport: Movement of substances across the membrane without energy input (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).

• Active Transport: Movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

• Tonicity: Hypertonic, hypotonic, and isotonic solutions affect cell volume.

Tissues and Organ Systems

Major Tissue Typesn,,

• Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities.

• Connective Tissue: Supports, protects, and binds other tissues.

• Muscle Tissue: Responsible for movement.

• Nervous Tissue: Initiates and transmits electrical impulses.

Organs and Organ Systems

• Organ: Structure composed of at least two tissue types that performs a specific function.

• Major Organ Systems: Integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive.

Genetics and Cell Division

DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis

• DNA Structure: Double helix composed of nucleotides (adenine, thymine, cytosine, guanine).

• Transcription: Synthesis of RNA from DNA template.

• Translation: Synthesis of protein from mRNA template.

• Central Dogma of Biology: Information flows from DNA to RNA to protein.

• Codons and Anticodons: Triplet codes in mRNA and tRNA that specify amino acids.

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• Cell Cycle: Series of events that cells go through as they grow and divide (interphase, mitosis, cytokinesis).

• Mitosis: Division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei.

• Checkpoints: Control mechanisms that ensure proper division.

• Programmed Cell Death (Apoptosis): Controlled process that leads to cell death, important for development and disease prevention.

• Benign vs. Malignant Tumors: Benign tumors do not invade other tissues; malignant tumors (cancers) can spread (metastasize).

Cytoskeleton and Cellular Organization

Cytoskeleton Structure and Function

• Cytoskeleton: Network of protein fibers that provide structural support, cell movement, and transport within cells.

• Major Fiber Types: Microfilaments, intermediate filaments, microtubules.

• Functions: Cell shape, movement (cilia, flagella), division, intracellular transport.

Summary Table: Major Macromolecules

Macromolecule	Monomer	Main Function	Example
Carbohydrates	Monosaccharides	Energy storage, structure	Glucose, starch
Lipids	Fatty acids, glycerol	Energy storage, membranes	Triglycerides, phospholipids
Proteins	Amino acids	Enzymes, structure, transport	Hemoglobin, actin
Nucleic Acids	Nucleotides	Genetic information	DNA, RNA

Key Equations and Concepts

• Metabolism Equation: $\text{Metabolism} = \text{Anabolism} + \text{Catabolism}$

• pH Calculation: $\text{pH} = -\log_{10}[\text{H}^+]$

• Osmosis: Movement of water from an area of low solute concentration to high solute concentration across a semipermeable membrane.

Additional info:

• Some content was inferred and expanded for clarity and completeness, as the original file was a syllabus/learning outcomes list.

• For exam preparation, students should review all lecture materials, textbook chapters, and assignments as indicated by the instructor.