Skip to main content
Back

Comprehensive Study Guide: Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology, Chemistry, Cells, and Tissues

NotesPracticeVideo lessons

Study Guide - Smart Notes

Tailored notes based on your materials, expanded with key definitions, examples, and context.

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology: Definitions and Subdisciplines

  • Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.

  • Physiology is the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery—how the body parts work and carry out their life-sustaining activities.

  • Subdisciplines of Anatomy:

    • Gross (macroscopic) anatomy: Study of large body structures visible to the naked eye (e.g., heart, bones).

    • Microscopic anatomy: Study of structures too small to be seen with the naked eye (e.g., cells, tissues).

    • Developmental anatomy: Study of structural changes throughout the lifespan.

  • Subdisciplines of Physiology:

    • Cell physiology: Study of the functions of cells.

    • Systemic physiology: Study of the function of organ systems (e.g., cardiovascular physiology).

Levels of Organization

  • Biological organization proceeds from simplest to most complex:

  • Levels: Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

  • Example: Atoms form molecules, which make up cells; cells form tissues, tissues form organs, organs form organ systems, and organ systems form the organism.

The Organ Systems

  • There are 11 major organ systems in the human body:

Organ System

Function

Example Organ

Integumentary

Protection, temperature regulation

Skin

Skeletal

Support, movement, blood cell production

Femur

Muscular

Movement, heat production

Biceps brachii

Nervous

Control, communication

Brain

Endocrine

Hormone production, regulation

Thyroid gland

Cardiovascular

Transport of nutrients and gases

Heart

Lymphatic

Immunity, fluid balance

Lymph nodes

Respiratory

Gas exchange

Lungs

Digestive

Breakdown and absorption of food

Stomach

Urinary

Waste elimination, water balance

Kidneys

Reproductive

Production of offspring

Ovaries/Testes

Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

  • Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

  • Components: Receptor (detects change), Control Center (processes information), Effector (responds to change).

  • Feedback Mechanisms:

    • Negative feedback: Reverses a change to maintain balance (e.g., body temperature regulation).

    • Positive feedback: Enhances a change (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).

Anatomical Position

  • Standard reference position: body erect, feet slightly apart, palms facing forward, thumbs pointing away from the body.

Body Cavities

  • Body cavity: Internal space that houses organs.

  • Major thoracic body cavities:

    • Pleural cavities: Each surrounds a lung.

    • Mediastinum: Central compartment, contains heart, trachea, esophagus.

    • Pericardial cavity: Contains the heart.

  • Visceral membrane: Covers organs; Parietal membrane: Lines cavity walls.

Abdominopelvic Regions

  • The abdomen is divided into 9 regions for anatomical reference:

Upper Row

Middle Row

Lower Row

Right hypochondriac

Epigastric

Left hypochondriac

Right lumbar

Umbilical

Left lumbar

Right iliac (inguinal)

Hypogastric (pubic)

Left iliac (inguinal)

The Chemical Level of Organization

Atoms and Subatomic Particles

  • Atom: Smallest unit of matter retaining chemical properties.

  • Subatomic particles: Protons (+), Neutrons (0), Electrons (−).

  • Atomic number: Number of protons in the nucleus.

  • Atomic mass: Number of protons plus neutrons.

  • Isotopes: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

Molecules, Ions, and Compounds

  • Element: Pure substance of one type of atom.

  • Compound: Substance formed from two or more elements chemically combined.

  • Anion: Negatively charged ion (gained electrons).

  • Cation: Positively charged ion (lost electrons).

  • Organic molecules: Contain carbon and hydrogen (e.g., glucose).

  • Inorganic molecules: Do not contain both carbon and hydrogen (e.g., water, salts).

Properties of Water

  • Water is the most abundant compound in the body.

  • Key properties: high heat capacity, excellent solvent, participates in chemical reactions, provides cushioning.

pH Scale, Acids, and Bases

  • pH scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; ranges from 0 (acidic) to 14 (basic), with 7 as neutral.

  • Acid: Substance that releases H+ ions in solution.

  • Base: Substance that accepts H+ ions or releases OH−.

  • Formula:

Biomolecules: Classes, Monomers, and Functions

  • Four major classes:

Class

Monomer

Function

Carbohydrates

Monosaccharides

Energy source

Lipids

Fatty acids, glycerol

Energy storage, membranes

Proteins

Amino acids

Structure, enzymes, transport

Nucleic acids

Nucleotides

Genetic information

ATP: Structure and Function

  • ATP (adenosine triphosphate): Main energy currency of the cell.

  • Energy is released when ATP is hydrolyzed to ADP and inorganic phosphate.

  • Chemical equation:

Cell Structure and Function

Cell Theory

  • All living things are composed of cells.

  • Cells are the basic unit of structure and function in living organisms.

  • All cells arise from pre-existing cells.

Cytoplasm, Interstitial Fluid, and Plasma

  • Cytoplasm: Material inside the cell membrane, excluding the nucleus; contains cytosol and organelles.

  • Interstitial fluid: Fluid between cells in tissues.

  • Plasma: Liquid component of blood.

Organelles: Properties and Functions

  • Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA); controls cell activities.

  • Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.

  • Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (RER): Studded with ribosomes; synthesizes and transports proteins.

  • Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (SER): Synthesizes lipids, detoxifies chemicals.

  • Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.

  • Vesicles: Membrane-bound sacs for transport and storage.

  • Mitochondria: Site of ATP production via cellular respiration.

  • Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes; break down waste.

  • Peroxisomes: Break down fatty acids and detoxify harmful substances.

Protein Production and Transport

  • Proteins are synthesized by ribosomes, processed in the rough ER, modified and packaged in the Golgi apparatus, and transported in vesicles.

  • Example: Insulin production in pancreatic cells follows this pathway.

Plasma Membrane: Structure and Function

  • Functions: Selective barrier, communication, cell recognition.

  • Composition: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates.

  • Phospholipids: Hydrophilic heads face outward; hydrophobic tails face inward.

  • Cholesterol: Stabilizes membrane fluidity.

Membrane Permeability

  • Describes how easily substances can cross the membrane.

  • Small, nonpolar molecules pass easily; large or charged molecules require transport proteins.

Passive and Active Transport

  • Passive transport: No energy required; moves substances down their concentration gradient.

  • Types: Diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis.

  • Active transport: Requires energy (ATP); moves substances against their concentration gradient.

  • Types: Primary active transport (e.g., sodium-potassium pump), secondary active transport, bulk transport (endocytosis, exocytosis).

  • Comparison: Passive transport relies on kinetic energy; active transport uses cellular energy.

The Tissue Level of Organization

Tissues: Four Main Types and Properties

  • Epithelial tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands; cells closely packed, little extracellular matrix.

  • Connective tissue: Supports, binds, protects; cells scattered in abundant extracellular matrix.

  • Muscle tissue: Contracts to produce movement; three types: skeletal, cardiac, smooth.

  • Nervous tissue: Conducts electrical impulses; found in brain, spinal cord, nerves.

Connective Tissue: General and Specific Properties

  • General properties: Few cells, abundant extracellular matrix (fibers and ground substance).

  • Types include loose (areolar, adipose), dense (regular, irregular), cartilage, bone, blood.

Endocrine vs Exocrine Cells

  • Endocrine cells: Secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream (no ducts).

  • Exocrine cells: Secrete products into ducts that lead to body surfaces or cavities (e.g., sweat, saliva).

Modes of Secretion: Merocrine, Apocrine, Holocrine

  • Merocrine: Secretion by exocytosis (e.g., sweat glands).

  • Apocrine: Secretion involves loss of cytoplasm with product (e.g., mammary glands).

  • Holocrine: Entire cell ruptures to release product (e.g., sebaceous glands).

Muscle Tissue: Types

  • Skeletal muscle: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones.

  • Cardiac muscle: Involuntary, striated, found in heart.

  • Smooth muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, found in walls of hollow organs.

Nervous Tissue: Definition

  • Composed of neurons and supporting cells (neuroglia).

  • Functions in communication, sensation, and control of body functions.

Additional info: Some explanations and examples were expanded for clarity and completeness based on standard academic sources.

Pearson Logo

Study Prep