Anatomy & Physiology lab pratical 1

Skeletal System Overview

Introduction

The skeletal system forms the structural framework of the human body, providing support, protection, and facilitating movement. It consists of bones, cartilage, ligaments, and joints, each with specialized functions and anatomical features.

• Bones: Rigid organs that constitute the majority of the skeleton.

• Cartilage: Flexible connective tissue found in joints and other areas.

• Blood: Present within bone marrow, involved in hematopoiesis.

• Bone tissue types: Compact and spongy bone.

Histology of Epithelial Tissues

Types of Epithelial Tissue

Epithelial tissues line body surfaces and cavities, serving protective, absorptive, and secretory functions.

• Simple squamous epithelium: Single layer of flat cells; found in alveoli and blood vessels.

• Simple columnar epithelium: Single layer of tall, column-shaped cells; lines digestive tract.

• Stratified squamous epithelium (skin): Multiple layers; provides protection against abrasion.

Connective Tissue Types

• Areolar connective tissue: Loose connective tissue; supports and binds other tissues.

• Elastic cartilage: Flexible cartilage; found in ear and epiglottis.

• Hyaline cartilage: Most common cartilage; found in nose, trachea, and at joints.

• Reticular tissue: Forms supporting framework of lymphoid organs.

Bone Classification and Structure

Main Bone Types

• Long bones: e.g., femur, humerus

• Short bones: e.g., carpals, tarsals

• Flat bones: e.g., skull, ribs

• Irregular bones: e.g., vertebrae

• Sesamoid bones: e.g., patella

Skull Anatomy

Sutures of the Skull

Sutures are immovable joints between skull bones.

• Sagittal

• Coronal

• Squamous

• Lambdoidal

Frontal Bone

• Frontal sinuses: Air-filled cavities within the frontal bone.

• Supraorbital foramen: Opening above the orbit for nerves and vessels.

Temporal Bone

• Squamous portion

• Petrous portion

• Mastoid process

• External acoustic meatus

• Internal acoustic meatus

• Zygomatic process

• Styloid process

• Carotid canal

Occipital Bone

• Foramen magnum: Large opening for spinal cord.

• Occipital condyles: Articulate with the first cervical vertebra.

• Hypoglossal canal

Sphenoid Bone

• Greater wings

• Lesser wings

• Pterygoid processes

• Sella turcica: Houses the pituitary gland.

• Optic canals

• Foramen rotundum

• Foramen ovale

• Foramen spinosum

• Superior orbital fissures

• Sphenoidal sinuses

Mandible

• Mandibular condyle

• Coronoid process

• Mental foramen

• Alveolar processes

Maxilla

• Maxillary sinus

• Infraorbital foramen

• Palatine process

• Zygomatic process

Palatine Bone

• Horizontal plate (maxillary process)

• Perpendicular plate

Nasal Bones, Inferior Nasal Conchae, Lacrimal Bones, Vomer, Hyoid Bone

These bones contribute to the structure of the nasal cavity, orbit, and throat.

Vertebral Column

Regions and Features

• Cervical (C1-C7): Includes atlas (C1) and axis (C2).

• Thoracic (T1-T12)

• Lumbar (L1-L5)

• Sacrum

• Coccyx

Key Vertebral Features

• Intervertebral foramen: Passage for spinal nerves.

• Vertebral foramen: Canal for spinal cord.

• Body: Main weight-bearing portion.

• Transverse process

• Spinous process

• Articulating facets

• Superior and inferior facets

• Costal facets: Thoracic vertebrae for rib articulation.

Thoracic Cage

Components

• True ribs (1-7): Directly attached to sternum.

• False ribs (8-10): Indirectly attached.

• Floating ribs (11-12): Not attached to sternum.

• Sternum: Includes manubrium, body, xiphoid process.

• Costal notches

Appendicular Skeleton

Pectoral Girdle

• Clavicle

• Scapula: Includes acromial end, coracoid process, spine, supraspinous and infraspinous fossae, subscapular fossa, acromion process, glenoid cavity.

Upper Limb

• Humerus: Greater and lesser tubercles, deltoid tuberosity, trochlea, medial/lateral epicondyles, coronoid/olecranon fossae.

• Ulna: Olecranon process.

• Radius: Head, radial tuberosity, ulnar notch, styloid process.

Pelvic Girdle

• Os coxa: Ilium, iliac crest, iliac fossa, sacroiliac joint, greater/lesser sciatic notch, ischium, ischial spine/tuberosity, pubis, obturator foramen.

Lower Limb

• Femur: Head, neck, intercondylar notch, fovea capitis, greater/lesser trochanter, lateral/medial epicondyles, condyles.

• Tibia: Tibial tuberosity, lateral/medial condyles, medial malleolus.

• Fibula: Head, lateral malleolus.

Summary Table: Major Bones and Key Features

Bone	Key Features
Frontal	Frontal sinuses, supraorbital foramen
Temporal	Squamous/petrous portions, mastoid process, external/internal acoustic meatus, zygomatic process, styloid process, carotid canal
Occipital	Foramen magnum, occipital condyles, hypoglossal canal
Sphenoid	Greater/lesser wings, sella turcica, optic canals, foramen rotundum/ovale/spinosum, superior orbital fissures, sphenoidal sinuses
Mandible	Mandibular condyle, coronoid process, mental foramen, alveolar processes
Maxilla	Maxillary sinus, infraorbital foramen, palatine process, zygomatic process
Humerus	Greater/lesser tubercles, deltoid tuberosity, trochlea, epicondyles, fossae
Femur	Head, neck, trochanters, epicondyles, condyles
Tibia	Tibial tuberosity, condyles, medial malleolus
Fibula	Head, lateral malleolus

Additional info:

• Some terms and features were inferred based on standard anatomical knowledge to provide context and completeness.

• For exam preparation, students should be able to identify bone features, classify bones, and understand their functional significance.