Essential Concepts in Anatomy & Physiology: Exam 1 Study Guide

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Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Basic Life Functions

Anatomy and physiology focus on understanding the structure and function of the human body. The following are essential life functions necessary for survival:

Cell: The smallest unit capable of carrying out the functions of life.
Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in the body.
Growth: Increase in size of individual cells or in the number of cells.
Excretion: Removal of waste products from the body.
Responsiveness: Sensing and reacting to changes in the environment.
Movement: Ability of an entire organism to move, or movement between cells or organs.
Reproduction: Production of new cells within an organism or the production of offspring.

Levels of Structural Organization

The human body is organized into hierarchical levels:

Chemicals > Cells > Tissues > Organs > Organ Systems > Organism

Major Organ Systems

Overview of Organ Systems

Each organ system has specialized functions vital for maintaining homeostasis and overall health.

Integumentary System: Includes skin and accessory organs; protects the body, produces vitamin D, retains water, and regulates temperature.
Skeletal System: Composed of bones and associated cartilages; supports the body, protects organs, produces blood cells, and stores calcium salts.
Muscular System: Consists of skeletal muscles and connective tissues; produces movement, controls body openings, and generates heat.
Lymphatic System: Includes lymph nodes, vessels, spleen, tonsils, and thymus; returns excess fluid to the cardiovascular system and provides immunity.
Respiratory System: Delivers oxygen to the blood and removes carbon dioxide.
Digestive System: Digests food, absorbs nutrients, and removes waste.
Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, and nerves; regulates body functions, sensation, movement, and higher mental functions.
Endocrine System: Organs that secrete hormones influencing other cells and tissues.
Cardiovascular System: Heart and blood vessels; delivers and drains blood to and from tissues.
Urinary System: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra; removes metabolic wastes, regulates fluid, electrolytes, and acid-base balance, and stimulates red blood cell production.
Reproductive System: Sex organs; produces gametes and hormones, allows for offspring production.

Anatomical Terminology

Directional Terms

Directional terms describe the location of body structures:

Anterior: Toward the front.
Posterior: Toward the back.
Superior: Toward the head.
Inferior: Toward the tail.
Proximal: Closer to the point of origin (usually the trunk).
Distal: Farther from the point of origin.
Medial: Toward the midline.
Lateral: Away from the midline.
Superficial: Closer to the surface of the body.
Deep: Farther from the surface or more within the body’s interior.

Body Planes

Body planes are imaginary lines used to divide the body:

Sagittal Plane: Divides body into right and left portions.
Midsagittal Plane: Divides body into equal right and left portions.
Parasagittal Plane: Divides body into unequal right and left portions.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior and posterior portions.
Transverse (Horizontal) Plane: Divides body into superior and inferior portions.

Body Cavities

Body cavities house and protect internal organs.

Dorsal Body Cavity: Includes cranial and vertebral (spinal) cavities.
Cranial Cavity: Houses the brain.
Spinal Cavity: Houses the spinal cord.
Ventral Body Cavity: Includes thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.
Thoracic Cavity: Contains pleural cavities (lungs), mediastinum (between lungs), and pericardial cavity (heart).
Abdominopelvic Cavity: Contains abdominal and pelvic organs.

Serous Membranes

Serous membranes are thin sheets that envelope certain organs and produce serous fluid, reducing friction.

Homeostasis

Definition and Mechanisms

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. Disturbances can lead to disease or death.

Negative Feedback Loop: The response opposes the initial change, restoring balance. Example: Regulation of body temperature.
Positive Feedback Loop: The response amplifies the initial change. Example: Childbirth contractions.

Basic Chemistry for Anatomy & Physiology

Atoms and Elements

Understanding atomic structure is essential for studying physiology.

Atom: Smallest unit of matter retaining its properties.
Proton: Positively charged subatomic particle in the nucleus.
Neutron: Neutrally charged subatomic particle in the nucleus.
Electron: Negatively charged subatomic particle orbiting the nucleus.
Atomic Number: Number of protons.
Mass Number: Number of protons plus neutrons.
Isotope: Element with same atomic number but different mass number.

Electron Shells

First shell: Holds up to 2 electrons.
Second shell: Holds up to 8 electrons.
Third shell: Holds up to 18 electrons.

Types of Mixtures

Suspension: Large, unevenly distributed particles that settle out.
Colloid: Small, evenly distributed particles that do not settle out.
Solution: Extremely small, evenly distributed particles that do not settle out.

Chemical Bonds

Ionic Bond: Electrons are transferred from one atom to another, forming ions.
Covalent Bond: Electrons are shared between atoms.
Polar Covalent Bond: Unequal sharing of electrons.
Nonpolar Covalent Bond: Equal sharing of electrons.
Hydrogen Bond: Weak attraction between the partial positive end of one dipole and the partial negative end of another dipole; responsible for water’s surface tension.

Chemical Reactions

Reactant: Substance entering a reaction.
Product: Substance produced by a reaction.
Enzyme: Biological catalyst that lowers activation energy and is not consumed in the reaction.

Types of Reactions

Anabolic Reaction: Build up (synthesis).
Catabolic Reaction: Break down (decomposition).
Oxidation-Reduction (Redox) Reaction: Transfer of electrons; oxidation is loss, reduction is gain.

Energy in Reactions

Potential Energy: Stored energy.
Kinetic Energy: Energy of motion.
Endergonic Reaction: Requires energy input.
Exergonic Reaction: Releases energy.

Water, Acids, Bases, and Buffers

Properties of Water

Makes up 60-80% of body mass.
High heat capacity, evaporative cooling, cushioning, protection, universal solvent.
Hydrophilic: Water loving.
Hydrophobic: Water fearing.

Acids, Bases, and pH

Acid: Gives off hydrogen ions in solution; pH below 7.
Base: Gives off hydroxide ions or takes up hydrogen ions; pH above 7.
pH Scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; ranges from 0-14, 7 is neutral. Blood pH: 7.35-7.45
Buffer: Resists changes in pH.

Biological Macromolecules

Monomers and Polymers

Monomer: Single subunit that can be combined to build larger molecules (polymers).
Polymer: Larger structure made from monomers.
Dehydration Synthesis: Builds polymers by removing water.
Hydrolysis: Breaks polymers by adding water.

Carbohydrates

Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen (often in a 1:2:1 ratio).
Monosaccharide: Simple sugar, carbohydrate monomer.
Polysaccharide: Carbohydrate polymer made of many monosaccharides.

Summary Table: Major Organ Systems and Functions

Organ System	Main Components	Primary Functions
Integumentary	Skin, hair, nails, glands	Protection, vitamin D synthesis, water retention, temperature regulation
Skeletal	Bones, cartilage	Support, protection, movement, blood cell production, calcium storage
Muscular	Skeletal muscles, tendons	Movement, heat production, control of body openings
Lymphatic	Lymph nodes, vessels, spleen, tonsils, thymus	Immunity, fluid return to cardiovascular system
Respiratory	Lungs, trachea, bronchi	Gas exchange (O2 in, CO2 out)
Digestive	Alimentary canal, accessory organs	Digestion, absorption, waste removal
Nervous	Brain, spinal cord, nerves	Regulation, sensation, movement, higher functions
Endocrine	Glands (pituitary, thyroid, etc.)	Hormone secretion, regulation of other systems
Cardiovascular	Heart, blood vessels	Transport of blood, nutrients, gases, wastes
Urinary	Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra	Waste removal, fluid/electrolyte/acid-base balance
Reproductive	Sex organs	Production of gametes and hormones

Key Equations and Scientific Principles

Atomic Number:
Mass Number:
pH Scale:

Example Applications

Negative Feedback Example: When body temperature rises, mechanisms such as sweating are activated to cool the body, restoring normal temperature.
Positive Feedback Example: During childbirth, contractions intensify as oxytocin is released, amplifying the response until delivery.
Isotope Example: Carbon-12 and Carbon-14 are isotopes of carbon, differing in neutron number.

Additional info: This guide expands on the original notes by providing definitions, examples, and a summary table for organ systems, as well as key equations relevant to anatomy and physiology.