Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology: Key Concepts and Terminology

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Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences in understanding the structure and function of the human body. This study guide covers essential terms, processes, body planes, organizational levels, and major body systems relevant to introductory college-level Anatomy & Physiology.

Key Terms and Definitions

Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another.
Physiology: The study of the function of the body’s structural machinery.
Anatomical Position: The standard body position used as a reference in describing anatomical locations and directions; the body stands upright, facing forward, arms at the sides with palms facing forward.
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite changes in external conditions.
Interstitial Fluid: The fluid that surrounds and bathes the body’s cells.
Negative Feedback System: A control mechanism that reduces or shuts off the original stimulus, helping to maintain homeostasis (e.g., regulation of body temperature).
Positive Feedback System: A control mechanism that enhances or amplifies the original stimulus (e.g., blood clotting, labor contractions).
Prone: Lying face down.
Supine: Lying face up.
Differentiation: The process by which cells become specialized in structure and function.
Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur within the body, including catabolism (breaking down molecules) and anabolism (building molecules).

Body Planes and Directions

Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into right and left portions.
Midsagittal Plane: Divides the body into equal right and left halves.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.
Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.
Mediastinum: The central compartment of the thoracic cavity, containing the heart, trachea, esophagus, and other structures.
Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment or origin.
Distal: Farther from the point of attachment or origin.
Superficial: Toward or at the body surface.
Deep: Away from the body surface; more internal.
Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.
Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

Characteristics of Living Things

Six Processes Distinguishing Living from Nonliving Things

Living organisms exhibit several key processes that set them apart from nonliving matter:

Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions in the body, including energy production and usage.
Responsiveness: The ability to detect and respond to changes in the environment.
Movement: Includes motion of the whole body, individual organs, cells, or organelles within cells.
Growth: Increase in body size due to an increase in the number or size of cells.
Differentiation: The process by which unspecialized cells become specialized.
Reproduction: Formation of new cells for growth, repair, or replacement, or the production of a new individual.

Levels of Structural Organization

Hierarchy from Smallest to Largest

The human body is organized in a hierarchical manner:

Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules
Cellular Level: Cells and their organelles
Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function
Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types
Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together for a common purpose
Organismal Level: The living human being

Major Body Systems: Structures and Functions

Overview of Key Systems

Integumentary System: Includes skin, hair, nails, and glands. Functions: protection, temperature regulation, sensation.
Skeletal System: Bones, joints, and cartilage. Functions: support, protection, movement, blood cell production, mineral storage.
Cardiovascular System: Heart, blood vessels. Functions: transport of nutrients, gases, wastes, and hormones; regulation of body temperature.
Respiratory System: Lungs, trachea, bronchi, nasal passages. Functions: gas exchange (oxygen and carbon dioxide), acid-base balance.
Endocrine System: Glands such as pituitary, thyroid, adrenal. Functions: hormone production, regulation of metabolism, growth, and reproduction.
Urinary System: Kidneys, ureters, bladder, urethra. Functions: elimination of wastes, regulation of blood volume and composition.

Body Cavities and Divisions

Pericardial Cavity

Definition: The pericardial cavity is the space within the thoracic cavity that surrounds the heart.
Contents: Contains the heart and is lined by the pericardium (a double-layered membrane).

Divisions of the Thoracic and Abdominopelvic Cavities

Structure Dividing Cavities: The diaphragm is the muscular structure that separates the thoracic cavity from the abdominopelvic cavity.

Medical Imaging and Anatomical Planes

Imaging for Bony Structures

Best Procedure: Computed Tomography (CT) scan is often the best for showing fine detail of bony structures.

Planes Dividing Organs

Superior & Inferior Portions: The transverse (horizontal) plane divides organs into superior (upper) and inferior (lower) portions.
Anterior & Posterior Portions: The frontal (coronal) plane divides organs into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.

Hormones

Definition

Hormones: Chemical messengers produced by endocrine glands that regulate physiological processes by traveling through the bloodstream to target organs.

Body Regions and Anatomical Terms

Regional Terminology Table

The following table matches anatomical terms to their corresponding body regions:

Term	Body Region
Axillary	Armpit
Popliteal	Back of knee
Cephalic	Head
Brachial	Arm (upper arm)
Calcaneal	Heel
Olecranal	Back of elbow
Coxal	Hip
Plantar	Sole of foot
Crural	Leg (lower leg)
Carpal	Wrist
Otic	Ear
Cervical	Neck
Sternal	Breastbone (sternum)
Scapular	Shoulder blade

Summary Table: Anatomical Planes

Plane	Division	Example
Sagittal	Right and left portions	Divides the body into right and left sides
Midsagittal	Equal right and left halves	Divides the body exactly at the midline
Frontal (Coronal)	Anterior and posterior portions	Divides the body into front and back
Transverse	Superior and inferior portions	Divides the body into upper and lower parts

Additional info:

Some terms and explanations have been expanded for clarity and completeness.
Examples of medical imaging and hormone function are provided for academic context.