Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology: Study Notes

Introduction to Anatomy, Physiology, Cytology, and Histology

Definitions and Scope

• Anatomy: The study of the structure and organization of living organisms.

• Physiology: The study of the functions and mechanisms occurring in living organisms.

• Cytology: The branch of biology concerned with the study of cells.

• Histology: The study of tissues and their organization within organs.

Levels of Organization in the Human Body

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules.

• Cellular Level: Cells, the basic unit of life.

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.

• Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types.

• Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together.

• Organismal Level: The complete living being.

Anatomical Position and Body Regions

• Anatomical Position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward.

• Axial Region: Head, neck, and trunk.

• Appendicular Region: Limbs and their attachments.

Body Cavities and Planes

• Body Cavities: Spaces within the body that contain organs (e.g., thoracic, abdominal, pelvic).

• Body Planes: Imaginary lines dividing the body (sagittal, frontal/coronal, transverse).

• Abdominopelvic Regions and Quadrants: Used to describe locations of organs.

Cellular Structure and Function

Major Cell Components

• Plasma Membrane: Outer boundary, regulates entry/exit of substances.

• Cytoplasm: Contains organelles and cytosol.

• Nucleus: Contains genetic material (DNA).

Plasma Membrane Structure and Function

• Structure: Phospholipid bilayer with embedded proteins.

• Function: Selective barrier, communication, cell recognition.

Cellular Transport Mechanisms

• Passive Transport: No energy required (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).

• Active Transport: Requires energy (pumps, endocytosis, exocytosis).

Cell Cycle and Division

• Cell Cycle: Series of events leading to cell division ($G_1$, $S$, $G_2$, M phase).

• Mitosis: Division of somatic cells.

• Meiosis: Division producing gametes.

Tissues: Epithelial, Connective, Nervous, and Muscle

Epithelial Tissue

• Characteristics: Covers surfaces, lines cavities, forms glands.

• Types: Simple, stratified, pseudostratified; squamous, cuboidal, columnar, transitional.

• Functions: Protection, absorption, secretion, filtration.

Table: Types of Epithelial Tissue

Type	Shape	Location	Function
Simple Squamous	Flat	Alveoli, blood vessels	Diffusion, filtration
Simple Cuboidal	Cube-like	Kidney tubules	Secretion, absorption
Simple Columnar	Tall, column	Digestive tract	Absorption, secretion
Stratified Squamous	Multiple layers, flat	Skin, mouth	Protection
Transitional	Variable	Urinary bladder	Stretching

Intercellular Junctions

• Tight Junctions: Prevent leakage between cells.

• Desmosomes: Provide mechanical strength.

• Gap Junctions: Allow communication between cells.

Connective Tissue (CT)

• Major Categories: Loose, dense, cartilage, bone, blood.

• Functions: Support, protection, transport, storage.

• Protein Fibers: Collagen (strength), elastic (flexibility), reticular (support).

• Cells: Resident (fibroblasts, adipocytes), wandering (macrophages, mast cells).

Table: Major Categories of Connective Tissue

Category	Examples	Location	Function
Loose CT	Areolar, adipose	Under skin	Support, cushioning
Dense CT	Tendons, ligaments	Muscle-bone connections	Strength
Cartilage	Hyaline, elastic, fibrocartilage	Joints, ear	Support, flexibility
Bone	Compact, spongy	Skeletal system	Support, protection
Blood	Red, white cells	Vessels	Transport

Nervous Tissue

• Cells: Neurons (transmit signals), neuroglia (support neurons).

• Function: Communication, control of body functions.

Muscle Tissue

• Types: Skeletal (voluntary movement), cardiac (heart), smooth (walls of organs).

Membranes and Integumentary System

Body Membranes

• Serous Membranes: Line body cavities, secrete fluid.

• Parietal vs. Visceral: Parietal lines cavity wall; visceral covers organs.

Integumentary System

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, vitamin D synthesis.

• Layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (deepest).

• Strata of Epidermis: From deep to superficial—stratum basale, spinosum, granulosum, lucidum (in thick skin), corneum.

• Cells in Epidermis: Keratinocytes, melanocytes, Langerhans cells, Merkel cells.

• Factors Contributing to Skin Color: Melanin, hemoglobin, carotene.

Hair and Glands

• Hair Regions: Shaft, root, bulb.

• Layers in Hair: Medulla, cortex, cuticle.

• Glands: Sebaceous (oil), sweat (eccrine, apocrine).

Skin Injuries and Cancer

• Burn Degrees: First (epidermis), second (epidermis + dermis), third (full thickness).

• Major Types of Skin Cancer: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma.

Additional info:

• Some content inferred from standard Anatomy & Physiology curriculum to provide complete context.