Foundations of Anatomy, Physiology, and Chemistry: Study Guide

MODULE 1: Foundations of Anatomy, Physiology, and Chemistry

MT 1.1 Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and physiology are foundational sciences for understanding the structure and function of the human body. Anatomy focuses on the physical structures, while physiology explores how these structures function.

• Anatomy: Study of body structures and their relationships. Subdivisions include gross (macroscopic), regional, systemic, and surface anatomy.

• Physiology: Study of body functions, including systems such as neurophysiology, cardiovascular physiology, and renal physiology.

• Relationship: Structure determines function (e.g., alveoli thin walls allow efficient gas exchange).

Example: The heart's muscular walls (anatomy) enable it to pump blood (physiology).

MT 1.2 Levels of Organization

The human body is organized into hierarchical levels, each with increasing complexity.

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules (e.g., water, proteins).

• Cellular Level: Cells are the basic units of life (e.g., neuron, muscle cell).

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function (e.g., muscle tissue).

• Organ Level: Structures composed of two or more tissue types (e.g., heart).

• Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together (e.g., digestive system).

• Organismal Level: The complete living being (human).

Example: Water (chemical) → neuron (cell) → nervous tissue → brain (organ) → nervous system → human (organism).

MT 1.3 Survey of Body Systems

The body is composed of several organ systems, each with specialized functions.

• Integumentary: Protection, temperature regulation.

• Skeletal: Support, protection, blood cell formation.

• Muscular: Movement, heat production.

• Nervous: Control, communication, sensation.

• Endocrine: Hormone regulation.

• Cardiovascular: Transport of nutrients, gases, wastes.

• Lymphatic/Immune: Defense, fluid balance.

• Respiratory: Gas exchange.

• Digestive: Nutrient breakdown and absorption.

• Urinary: Waste elimination, fluid regulation.

• Reproductive: Production of offspring.

MT 1.4 Characteristics of Life

Living organisms share several defining characteristics.

• Organization

• Metabolism (anabolism/catabolism)

• Responsiveness

• Movement

• Growth

• Reproduction

• Regulation/Homeostasis

MT 1.5 Anatomical Position

The anatomical position is a standard reference for describing body parts and regions.

• Position: Standing, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward.

• Importance: Provides a consistent frame of reference for anatomical terminology.

MT 1.6 Directional & Regional Terms

Directional and regional terms describe locations and regions of the body.

• Directional Terms: Superior/inferior, anterior/posterior, medial/lateral, proximal/distal, superficial/deep.

• Regional Terms: Axial (head, neck, trunk), appendicular (limbs).

• Body Planes: Sagittal (left/right), frontal (anterior/posterior), transverse (superior/inferior).

Example: The heart is medial to the lungs and superior to the diaphragm.

MT 1.7 Body Cavities and Membranes

Body cavities house organs and are lined by membranes.

• Dorsal Cavity: Cranial and vertebral cavities.

• Ventral Cavity: Thoracic and abdominopelvic cavities.

• Serous Membranes: Line body cavities and cover organs (e.g., pleura, pericardium, peritoneum).

MT 1.8 Homeostasis & Feedback Mechanisms

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. Feedback mechanisms regulate physiological processes.

• Negative Feedback: Most common; reverses a change (e.g., body temperature regulation).

• Positive Feedback: Enhances a change (e.g., blood clotting).

• Components: Stimulus → receptor → afferent pathway → control center → efferent pathway → effector → response.

Example: Regulation of blood glucose by insulin and glucagon.

MT 1.10 Introduction to Chemistry, Energy, and Matter

Chemistry underlies all physiological processes. Matter is anything that has mass and occupies space; energy is the capacity to do work.

• Forms of Energy: Light, heat, chemical, electrical, mechanical.

• States of Matter: Solid, liquid, gas.

MT 1.11 Characteristics of Atoms and Molecules

Atoms are the basic units of matter, composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons. Molecules are combinations of atoms.

• Atomic Structure: Nucleus (protons, neutrons), electrons in shells.

• Atomic Number: Number of protons.

• Mass Number: Protons + neutrons.

• Isotopes: Atoms with the same number of protons but different neutrons.

• Ions: Charged atoms (cations: positive, anions: negative).

MT 1.12 Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonds hold atoms together in molecules and compounds.

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons (e.g., NaCl).

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons; can be polar or nonpolar.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.

• Bond Strength: Nonpolar covalent > polar covalent > ionic > hydrogen.

MT 1.13 Chemical Reactions

Chemical reactions involve the making or breaking of bonds, forming new substances.

• Reactants → Products: Substrates are converted to products.

• Types: Synthesis, decomposition, exchange, reversible reactions.

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that speed up reactions.

• Factors Affecting Rate: Temperature, concentration, particle size, catalysts.

Equation Example: $\text{A} + \text{B} \rightarrow \text{AB}$ (synthesis) $\text{AB} \rightarrow \text{A} + \text{B}$ (decomposition)

MT 1.14 Inorganic Chemistry

Inorganic compounds include water, salts, acids, and bases. Water is essential for life due to its properties as a solvent and its high heat capacity.

• Water: Polar molecule, high heat capacity, solvent.

• Solutions: Homogeneous mixtures; solute dissolved in solvent.

• Suspensions/Colloids: Heterogeneous mixtures.

• Acids/Bases: Acids release H+; bases accept H+.

• pH Scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; 7 is neutral, <7 acidic, >7 basic.

Equation Example: $\text{H}_2\text{O} \rightleftharpoons \text{H}^+ + \text{OH}^-$

MT 1.15 Organic Chemistry

Organic compounds contain carbon and include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, and nucleic acids.

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; energy source.

• Lipids: Fats, oils, steroids; energy storage, membrane structure.

• Proteins: Amino acids; structure, enzymes, transport.

• Nucleic Acids: DNA, RNA; genetic information.

• ATP: Main energy currency of the cell. $\text{ATP} \rightarrow \text{ADP} + \text{P}_i + \text{energy}$

Example: Enzyme activity is affected by temperature and pH.

MODULE 2: Cell Biology and Histology (Overview)

• Cell Structure: Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, nucleus.

• Membrane Transport: Diffusion, osmosis, active transport.

• Cell Cycle: Mitosis, meiosis, DNA replication.

• Tissues: Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

Additional info: For detailed explanations, refer to the specific module objectives and learning outcomes listed in the syllabus.