Fundamental Concepts in Anatomy & Physiology: Mini-Study Guide

1. Homeostasis and Feedback Mechanisms

Negative Feedback & Positive Feedback

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment. Feedback mechanisms regulate physiological processes to maintain homeostasis.

• Negative Feedback: A process that reverses a change in a controlled condition. Example: Regulation of body temperature.

• Positive Feedback: A process that amplifies a change. Example: Blood clotting or labor contractions.

2. Levels of Organization

Hierarchical Structure in the Human Body

The human body is organized into increasing levels of complexity:

• Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules

• Cellular Level: Cells and their organelles

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells

• Organ Level: Structures composed of different tissues

• Organ System Level: Groups of organs working together

• Organism Level: The complete living being

3. Anatomical Position and Body Cavities

Standard Reference and Internal Spaces

• Anatomical Position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms facing forward.

• Body Cavities: Spaces within the body that contain organs. Examples: Thoracic cavity, abdominal cavity, pelvic cavity.

4. Serous Membranes

Pleura and Pericardium

• Pleura: Serous membrane surrounding the lungs.

• Pericardium: Serous membrane surrounding the heart.

5. Abdominal Pelvic Regions

Divisions of the Abdomen

• Abdominal Regions: Nine regions (e.g., right hypochondriac, epigastric, left lumbar, etc.)

• Quadrants: Four quadrants (right upper, left upper, right lower, left lower)

6. Characteristics of Life

Essential Properties of Living Organisms

• Metabolism

• Responsiveness

• Movement

• Growth

• Differentiation

• Reproduction

7. Anatomical Planes

Sagittal, Frontal, Transverse Sections

• Sagittal Plane: Divides body into left and right parts.

• Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides body into anterior and posterior parts.

• Transverse Plane: Divides body into superior and inferior parts.

8. Anatomy vs. Physiology

Structure and Function

• Anatomy: Study of body structure.

• Physiology: Study of body function.

9. Elements in the Human Body

Major Elements and Their Roles

• Major Elements: Oxygen, carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen

• Roles: Building blocks for biomolecules, cellular respiration, etc.

10. Carbohydrates

Glucose and Glycogen

• Glucose: Simple sugar, primary energy source

• Glycogen: Storage form of glucose in animals

11. Electron Numbers and Energy Levels

Atomic Structure

• Electron Shells: Electrons occupy energy levels around the nucleus

• Valence Electrons: Electrons in the outermost shell, important for chemical bonding

12. Organic vs. Inorganic Molecules

Classification of Molecules

• Organic Molecules: Contain carbon and hydrogen, e.g., carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids

• Inorganic Molecules: Do not contain both carbon and hydrogen, e.g., water, salts

13. Chemical Reactions in Biology

Anabolism vs. Catabolism

• Anabolic Reactions: Build complex molecules from simpler ones (e.g., dehydration synthesis)

• Catabolic Reactions: Break down complex molecules into simpler ones (e.g., hydrolysis)

14. Important Chemical Formulas

Water and Ions

• Water: $H_2O$

• Hydrogen Ion: $H^+$

• Hydroxide Ion: $OH^-$

15. Valence Electrons and Chemical Formulas

Calculating Valence Electrons

• Valence Electrons: Number of electrons in the outermost shell

• Example: $H_2O$ has 2 hydrogen atoms (1 electron each) and 1 oxygen atom (8 electrons, 6 in valence shell)

16. DNA and RNA

Structure and Function

• DNA: Deoxyribonucleic acid, stores genetic information

• RNA: Ribonucleic acid, involved in protein synthesis

• Nucleotides: Building blocks of DNA and RNA, consist of a sugar, phosphate, and nitrogenous base

17. Solutions and Red Blood Cells

Types of Solutions

• Isotonic: Same solute concentration as cell; no net water movement

• Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration than cell; water enters cell

• Hypertonic: Higher solute concentration than cell; water leaves cell

18. Plasma Membrane Components

Structure and Function

• Phospholipids: Form bilayer, provide barrier

• Proteins: Transport, signaling, structural support

• Carbohydrates: Cell recognition

• Cholesterol: Membrane fluidity

19. Biomolecules

Major Classes and Their Functions

• Carbohydrates: Energy source, structure

• Proteins: Enzymes, structure, transport

• Lipids: Energy storage, membrane structure

• Nucleic Acids: Genetic information (DNA, RNA)

20. Cell Division

Mitosis and Interphase

• Mitosis: Division of nucleus into two identical daughter cells

• Interphase: Period of cell growth and DNA replication

• Cell Organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria, Golgi apparatus, ribosomes, endoplasmic reticulum

21. Cellular Processes

Energy and Transport

• ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, main energy currency of the cell

• Phagocytosis: Cell engulfs particles

• Exocytosis: Cell expels materials

• Receptor-mediated Endocytosis: Specific uptake of molecules

22. Atomic Structure

Atomic Number and Mass

• Atomic Number: Number of protons in nucleus

• Atomic Mass: Sum of protons and neutrons

• Labeling a DNA Molecule: Phosphate group, deoxyribose sugar, nitrogenous base

23. Body Cavities

Major Cavities and Their Contents

• Cranial Cavity: Contains brain

• Thoracic Cavity: Contains heart and lungs

• Abdominal Cavity: Contains digestive organs

• Pelvic Cavity: Contains reproductive organs

24. Table: Comparison of Solution Types

Solution Type	Solute Concentration	Effect on Red Blood Cell
Isotonic	Equal to cell	No net movement; cell remains normal
Hypotonic	Lower than cell	Water enters cell; cell may swell and burst
Hypertonic	Higher than cell	Water leaves cell; cell shrinks

25. Table: Major Biomolecules

Biomolecule	Monomer	Function
Carbohydrates	Monosaccharides	Energy, structure
Proteins	Amino acids	Enzymes, structure, transport
Lipids	Fatty acids, glycerol	Energy storage, membranes
Nucleic Acids	Nucleotides	Genetic information