Human Anatomy & Physiology I: Structured Study Notes

Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology

Defining Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy is the study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another, while physiology is the study of the function of the body’s structural machinery. Together, these disciplines provide a comprehensive understanding of the human body.

• Anatomy: Focuses on the physical structures (organs, tissues, cells).

• Physiology: Explores how these structures work and interact.

Defining Cytology & Histology

• Cytology: Study of cells.

• Histology: Study of tissues.

Structural Organization

• Levels: Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries

• Movement

• Responsiveness

• Digestion

• Metabolism

• Excretion

• Reproduction

• Growth

Organ Systems Overview

Functions and Major Organs

• Skeletal System: Bones, cartilage, ligaments; supports and protects body, stores minerals.

• Muscular System: Muscles; movement, posture, heat production.

• Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves; fast-acting control system.

• Integumentary System: Skin, hair, nails; protection, temperature regulation.

• Other systems: Cardiovascular, respiratory, digestive, urinary, reproductive, endocrine, lymphatic, immune.

Homeostasis

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Autoregulation vs. Extrinsic Regulation: Autoregulation occurs locally; extrinsic regulation involves nervous or endocrine systems.

• Feedback Mechanisms:

  • Negative Feedback: Reduces the effect of the stimulus (e.g., regulation of body temperature).

  • Positive Feedback: Enhances the effect of the stimulus (e.g., blood clotting).

• Components: Receptor, control center, effector.

Biochemistry Foundations

Atoms and Molecules

• Atoms: Protons, neutrons, electrons.

• Atomic Number: Number of protons.

• Isotopes: Atoms with same number of protons, different neutrons.

• Abundant Atoms in Human Body: C, H, O, N, Ca, P.

Chemical Bonds

• Ionic Bonds: Transfer of electrons.

• Covalent Bonds: Sharing of electrons.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between polar molecules.

Chemical Reactions

• Reactants → Products

• Types: Synthesis, decomposition, exchange.

• Enzymes: Biological catalysts that lower activation energy.

Water and Solutions

• Properties: High heat capacity, solvent, reactivity.

• Hydrophilic vs. Hydrophobic: Water-loving vs. water-fearing.

• pH Scale: Measures acidity/basicity; $pH = -\log[H^+]$

• Buffers: Resist changes in pH.

Organic Molecules

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; energy source.

  • Monosaccharides (glucose), disaccharides (sucrose), polysaccharides (glycogen, starch).

• Lipids: Fats, oils, steroids, phospholipids.

  • Fatty acids: Saturated vs. unsaturated.

  • Phospholipids: Major component of cell membranes.

  • Steroids: Cholesterol, hormones.

• Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; genetic information.

  • DNA: Double helix, base pairing.

  • RNA: Single-stranded, protein synthesis.

  • ATP: Energy currency of the cell.

• Proteins: Amino acids; structure, enzymes, transport.

  • Four levels of structure: Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.

Cellular Organization

Cytology and Cell Biology

• Cell Types: Sex cells (gametes), somatic cells (body cells).

Plasma Membrane

• Functions: Barrier, communication, transport.

• Structure: Phospholipid bilayer, membrane proteins, carbohydrates.

Organelles

• Nonmembranous: Cytoskeleton, microvilli, cilia, ribosomes.

• Membranous: Endoplasmic reticulum (smooth & rough), Golgi apparatus, peroxisomes, mitochondria, nucleus.

Diffusion and Transport

• Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.

• Tonicity: Effect of solution on cell volume (isotonic, hypertonic, hypotonic).

• Facilitated Diffusion: Carrier-mediated transport.

• Active Transport: Requires energy (e.g., Na+/K+ pump).

• Vesicular Transport: Endocytosis, exocytosis.

• Transmembrane Potential: Voltage across the membrane.

Cell Cycle and Cancer

• Cell Cycle: Interphase (growth, DNA replication), mitosis (division), cytokinesis.

• Mitosis Stages: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

• Cancer: Uncontrolled cell division; tumors, invasion, metastasis, tumor suppressor genes.

Course Schedule and Assessment Overview

Major Topics by Week

Week	Topic	Book Chapters
1	Introduction, Biochemistry	Ch 1-2
2-3	Cellular Biology	Ch 3
4	Body Tissues	Ch 4
5	Integumentary System	Ch 5
6-7	Skeletal System	Ch 6-8
8-9	Muscular System	Ch 9-10
10-13	Nervous System	Ch 11-13
14-15	Special Senses, Review	Ch 15

Assessment Types

• Quizzes: Regular, chapter-based.

• Homework: Chapter assignments, adaptive follow-up.

• Exams: Three major exams, including a final covering all chapters.

Learning Outcomes

• Explain the operation of biomolecules, cells, tissues, and major organ systems.

• Demonstrate a command of general principles in human anatomy and physiology.

• Apply scientific reasoning and the scientific method to develop and test hypotheses.

Textbook Reference

• Title: Human Anatomy & Physiology

• Authors: Elaine N. Marieb, Katja N. Hoehn

• Publisher: Pearson

• Edition: 2018-01-01

Additional info: These notes are structured to align with the course schedule and objectives as outlined in the syllabus, providing a comprehensive overview for exam preparation and mastery of foundational concepts in human anatomy and physiology.