Human Anatomy & Physiology Lab Study Guide: BIOL 2201

Body Organization and Terminology

Torso Model

This section introduces the foundational anatomical terminology and body organization concepts essential for understanding human anatomy.

• Anatomical Directions: Standardized terms used to describe locations and relationships of body parts.

  • Superior: Toward the head or upper part of a structure.

  • Inferior: Away from the head or toward the lower part.

  • Anterior (ventral): Toward the front of the body.

  • Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back.

  • Medial: Toward the midline.

  • Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment.

  • Distal: Farther from the point of attachment.

• Planes of the Body: Imaginary lines dividing the body for anatomical study.

  • Sagittal section: Divides body into right and left parts.

  • Transverse (horizontal) section: Divides body into superior and inferior parts.

  • Frontal (coronal) section: Divides body into anterior and posterior parts.

• Quadrants of the Abdomen: Used to localize pain or pathology.

  • Right and left upper quadrants

  • Right and left lower quadrants

• Cavities and Associated Membranes:

  • Cranial cavity

  • Thoracic cavity (contains pleura and pericardium)

  • Abdominopelvic cavity (abdominal and pelvic cavities, peritoneum)

Tissues

Tissues are groups of similar cells performing a common function. Four basic types are identified in both microscope slides and skin models.

• Epithelial tissue: Covers body surfaces and lines cavities.

• Connective tissue: Supports, protects, and binds other tissues.

• Muscle tissue: Responsible for movement.

• Nervous tissue: Initiates and transmits electrical impulses.

Skin

Skin Model

The skin is composed of multiple layers, each with distinct structures and functions.

• Epidermis: Outermost layer; includes strata such as corneum, basale, and spinosum.

• Dermis: Deeper layer; contains papillary and reticular regions, glands, hair follicles, and sensory receptors.

• Hypodermis (subcutaneous layer): Contains adipose tissue for insulation and energy storage.

Microscope Slide of Skin Section: Identifies layers and cell types, such as stratified squamous epithelium and dermal papillae.

Skeletal System

Bone Structure

Bones are classified by their structure and function. Key features are observed in both real bones and models.

• Compact bone: Dense outer layer providing strength.

• Spongy bone: Porous inner layer containing marrow.

• Osteon: Structural unit of compact bone.

• Lamellae, canaliculi, lacunae: Components of bone matrix and cell housing.

Articulated Skeleton

The human skeleton is divided into axial and appendicular components.

• Axial skeleton: Skull, vertebral column, thoracic cage.

• Appendicular skeleton: Pectoral and pelvic girdles, limbs.

Key Bones and Landmarks

• Skull: Includes external (e.g., sutures, foramina) and internal (e.g., cribriform plate, sella turcica) structures.

• Vertebral column: Cervical, thoracic, lumbar vertebrae, sacrum, coccyx.

• Thoracic cage: Sternum, ribs, costal cartilages.

• Pectoral girdle: Clavicle, scapula.

• Upper limb: Humerus, radius, ulna, carpals, metacarpals, phalanges.

• Pelvic girdle: Ilium, ischium, pubis.

• Lower limb: Femur, tibia, fibula, tarsals, metatarsals, phalanges.

Joints and Muscle Tissue

Joints

Joints are classified by structure and function, allowing for varying degrees of movement.

• Fibrous joints (Synarthroses): Immovable; e.g., sutures of the skull.

• Cartilaginous joints (Amphiarthroses): Slightly movable; e.g., intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis.

• Synovial joints (Diarthroses): Freely movable; e.g., knee, elbow, shoulder.

Muscle Tissue

Muscle tissue is specialized for contraction and movement. It is classified into three types:

• Skeletal muscle: Voluntary, striated, attached to bones.

• Cardiac muscle: Involuntary, striated, found in the heart.

• Smooth muscle: Involuntary, non-striated, found in walls of hollow organs.

Microscope Slides and Models: Show features such as striations, nuclei, muscle fibers, fascicles, and connective tissue coverings (endomysium, perimysium, epimysium).

Muscles

Muscles of the Head, Chest, Back, Arm, Hip, and Leg

Major muscles are identified by location and function. The rotator cuff, quadriceps, hamstrings, and gluteal muscles are key groups.

• Head: Frontalis, occipitalis, orbicularis oculi/oris, masseter, temporalis, sternocleidomastoid.

• Chest/Back: Trapezius, latissimus dorsi, pectoralis major, deltoid, rotator cuff muscles.

• Arm: Biceps brachii, triceps brachii, brachialis, brachioradialis.

• Hip/Leg: Gluteus maximus/medius, quadriceps femoris group, hamstrings, gastrocnemius, soleus.

Fundamentals of the Nervous System

Microscope Slides and Models

The nervous system is composed of nerve cells (neurons) and supporting cells (glia). Key structures include:

• Neuron: Cell body (soma), dendrites, axon, myelin sheath, nodes of Ranvier.

• Spinal cord: White and gray matter, dorsal/ventral roots, meninges (dura, arachnoid, pia mater).

• Peripheral nerves: Endoneurium, perineurium, epineurium.

Central and Peripheral Nervous Systems

• Spinal nerves: Cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, coccygeal nerves.

• Plexuses: Cervical, brachial, lumbar, sacral.

• Autonomic nervous system: Sympathetic (thoracolumbar), parasympathetic (craniosacral).

Brain Anatomy

• Ventricles: Lateral, third, fourth ventricles; cerebral aqueduct.

• Cerebrum: Hemispheres, corpus callosum, gyri, sulci, lobes (frontal, parietal, temporal, occipital).

• Diencephalon: Thalamus, hypothalamus.

• Brainstem: Midbrain, pons, medulla oblongata.

• Cerebellum: Arbor vitae, cerebellar cortex.

• Other structures: Olfactory bulbs, optic chiasma, pituitary gland.

Senses

Microscope Slides and Models

The senses rely on specialized structures and receptors to detect stimuli.

• Skin: Meissner's (tactile) and Pacinian (lamellar) corpuscles for touch and pressure.

• Tongue: Papillae, taste buds, gustatory cells.

• Ear: External (auricle, canal), middle (ossicles), inner (cochlea, vestibule, semicircular canals).

• Eye: Fibrous tunic (cornea, sclera), vascular tunic (iris, ciliary body, choroid), nervous tunic (retina), lens, optic nerve.

Table: Types of Joints and Examples

Joint Type	Structure	Example
Fibrous (Synarthroses)	Dense connective tissue	Sutures of skull
Cartilaginous (Amphiarthroses)	Cartilage	Intervertebral discs, pubic symphysis
Synovial (Diarthroses)	Synovial cavity, articular cartilage	Knee, elbow, shoulder

Table: Major Tissue Types and Functions

Tissue Type	Function	Location Example
Epithelial	Protection, secretion, absorption	Skin, lining of GI tract
Connective	Support, binding, protection	Bone, blood, cartilage
Muscle	Movement	Skeletal muscles, heart, digestive tract
Nervous	Transmit impulses	Brain, spinal cord, nerves

Example: Anatomical Directions in Clinical Practice

When describing the location of pain, a physician may state, "The patient reports pain in the right lower quadrant of the abdomen, inferior and lateral to the umbilicus."

Additional info: Some content, such as detailed explanations of each muscle or bone, is inferred based on standard anatomy curricula and the provided outline.