Introduction to Anatomy & Physiology: Key Concepts and Foundations

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Anatomy: The study of the structure of body parts and their relationships to one another. It answers the question, "What does it look like?"
Physiology: The study of the function of body parts and how they work to carry out life-sustaining activities. It answers the question, "How does it work?"
Example: The anatomy of the heart includes its chambers and valves; its physiology involves how it pumps blood.

Chemical Level: Atoms and molecules essential for life.
Cellular Level: Cells, the basic units of life.
Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells performing a common function.
Organ Level: Structures composed of at least two tissue types working together.
Organ System Level: Groups of organs that perform closely related functions.
Organism Level: The complete living being.
Example: Muscle cell (cellular) → muscle tissue (tissue) → heart (organ) → cardiovascular system (organ system) → human (organism).

Organization: Structured arrangement of parts.
Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body, including anabolism (building up) and catabolism (breaking down).
Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli.
Regulation (Homeostasis): Maintenance of a stable internal environment.
Growth & Development: Increase in size and complexity.
Reproduction: Production of new cells or organisms.

Epithelial Tissue: Covers body surfaces, lines cavities, protects, and is involved in secretion. Lacks blood vessels (avascular).
Connective Tissue: Supports, binds, and stores energy; contains an extracellular matrix.
Muscle Tissue: Specialized for contraction. Types include skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle.
Nervous Tissue: Conducts electrical impulses for communication.
Example: The skin contains epithelial tissue (epidermis), connective tissue (dermis), muscle tissue (arrector pili), and nervous tissue (sensory receptors).

Definition: The process by which the body maintains a stable internal environment despite external changes.
Negative Feedback: The primary mechanism of homeostasis. A change is detected by a receptor, processed by a control center, and corrected by an effector to reverse the change.
Positive Feedback: Amplifies a change instead of reversing it. Example: blood clotting.
Example: Regulation of body temperature via sweating or shivering.

Sagittal Plane: Divides the body into left and right portions.
Frontal (Coronal) Plane: Divides the body into anterior (front) and posterior (back) portions.
Transverse Plane: Divides the body into superior (top) and inferior (bottom) portions.
Example: MRI images are often taken in the transverse plane.

Nucleus: Stores genetic material (DNA).
Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis.
Rough Endoplasmic Reticulum (Rough ER): Modifies and folds proteins; studded with ribosomes.
Smooth Endoplasmic Reticulum (Smooth ER): Synthesizes lipids and detoxifies chemicals.
Golgi Apparatus: Packages and ships proteins and lipids.
Lysosomes: Contain digestive enzymes for breaking down waste.
Mitochondria: Produce ATP through cellular respiration. Note: Not part of the membrane flow system.

Passive Transport: Does not require ATP. Includes:
- Diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.
- Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
- Facilitated Diffusion: Movement via transport proteins.
Active Transport: Requires ATP to move substances against their concentration gradient.
Water Movement: Water moves toward areas of higher solute concentration (osmosis).
Example: Sodium-potassium pump is an example of active transport.

Anabolism: Synthesis of complex molecules from simpler ones; requires energy.
Catabolism: Breakdown of complex molecules into simpler ones; releases energy.
Hydrolysis: Breaking chemical bonds with the addition of water.
Dehydration Synthesis: Formation of chemical bonds by removing water.
Example: Formation of proteins from amino acids (dehydration synthesis); breakdown of glycogen to glucose (hydrolysis).