Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology: Module 1 Study Notes

Introduction to Anatomy and Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology: Definitions and Scope

Anatomy (ah-nat'o-me) is the study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts and their relationships to one another. The term derives from Greek words meaning to cut (tomy) apart (ana).

• Gross Anatomy: The study of body structures visible to the naked eye, such as organs and organ systems.

• Microscopic Anatomy: The study of body structures too small to be seen without a microscope, such as cells and tissues.

• Physiology (fiz'e-ol'o-je): The study of how the body and its parts work or function. It focuses on mechanisms and processes that keep the body alive.

Overview of Organ Systems

The human body is organized into several organ systems, each with specific functions essential for survival.

Integumentary System

• Composed of the skin, hair, and fingernails.

• Protects the body, cushions deeper tissues, and prevents water loss.

• Helps regulate body temperature and synthesizes vitamin D.

• Contains sensory receptors for touch, pain, and temperature.

Skeletal System

• Consists of bones, cartilages, and joints.

• Provides structural support and protection for internal organs.

• Acts as a framework for muscle attachment, enabling movement.

• Stores minerals and produces blood cells in bone marrow.

Muscular System

• Responsible for movement by contracting or shortening muscles.

• Includes skeletal muscles (attached to bones), cardiac muscle (heart), and smooth muscle (walls of hollow organs).

• Enables voluntary and involuntary movements.

Nervous System

• Fast-acting control system of the body.

• Consists of the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory receptors.

• Detects and responds to internal and external stimuli.

Endocrine System

• Controls body activities via hormones, which are chemical messengers released into the blood.

• Includes glands such as pituitary, thyroid, parathyroids, adrenals, thymus, pancreas, pineal, ovaries (female), and testes (male).

Cardiovascular System

• Composed of the heart and blood vessels.

• Transports oxygen, nutrients, hormones, and wastes throughout the body.

• White blood cells defend against foreign invaders.

• Heart pumps blood to all body tissues.

Lymphatic System

• Complements the cardiovascular system.

• Includes lymphatic vessels, lymph nodes, and lymphoid organs (spleen, tonsils).

• Returns leaked fluids to the bloodstream and aids immunity.

Respiratory System

• Keeps the body supplied with oxygen and removes carbon dioxide.

• Includes nasal passages, pharynx, larynx, trachea, bronchi, and lungs.

Digestive System

• Breaks down food and absorbs nutrients.

• Consists of oral cavity, esophagus, stomach, small and large intestines, and accessory organs (liver, pancreas, salivary glands).

• Pancreas has both endocrine and digestive functions.

Urinary System

• Removes waste from the body in urine.

• Includes kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra.

• Regulates water, electrolyte, and acid-base balance.

Reproductive System

• Produces offspring.

• Male structures: testes, scrotum, penis, accessory glands, duct system.

• Female structures: ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina.

• Uterus is the site for fetal development.

Levels of Structural Organization

• Chemical Level: Atoms combine to form molecules.

• Cellular Level: Cells are made up of molecules.

• Tissue Level: Groups of similar cells with a common function.

• Organ Level: Different types of tissues form organs.

• Organ System Level: Organs that work together closely.

• Organismal Level: The human being as a whole.

Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries

• Movement

• Responsiveness

• Digestion

• Metabolism

• Excretion

• Reproduction

• Growth

Survival Needs

• Nutrients

• Oxygen

• Atmospheric pressure

• Normal body temperature

Anatomical Position

The body is erect with feet parallel and arms hanging at the sides with palms facing forward.

Directional Terms

• Superior (cranial): Toward the head or upper part of a structure.

• Inferior (caudal): Away from the head or toward the lower part of a structure.

• Anterior (ventral): Toward the front of the body.

• Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back of the body.

• Medial: Toward the midline of the body.

• Lateral: Away from the midline of the body.

• Proximal: Closer to the origin of the body part or point of attachment.

• Distal: Farther from the origin of the body part or point of attachment.

Body Parts and Regions

• Head: Cephalic region

• Neck: Cervical region

• Trunk: Thoracic, abdominal, pelvic regions

• Upper Limb: Brachial (arm), antebrachial (forearm), carpal (wrist), manual (hand)

• Lower Limb: Femoral (thigh), crural (leg), tarsal (ankle), pedal (foot)

Sample Table: Levels of Structural Organization

Level	Description	Example
Chemical	Atoms combine to form molecules	Glucose molecule
Cellular	Cells made up of molecules	Muscle cell
Tissue	Groups of similar cells	Muscle tissue
Organ	Different tissues form organs	Stomach
Organ System	Organs working together	Digestive system
Organismal	All organ systems	Human body

Key Equations and Scientific Terms

• Homeostasis: The body's ability to maintain stable internal conditions.

• Metabolism: All chemical reactions that occur within body cells. $\text{Metabolism} = \text{Catabolism} + \text{Anabolism}$

Examples and Applications

• Example: The heart (organ) is composed of muscle tissue, which is made up of muscle cells, and those cells contain molecules such as proteins and glucose.

• Application: Understanding directional terms is essential for describing locations of injuries or conditions in clinical practice.

Additional info: The notes above expand on the brief points in the original file, providing definitions, examples, and academic context for each topic.