Introduction to Physiology & Chemistry: Study Guide Notes

Introduction to Physiology

Body Systems

The human body is organized into several major systems, each with specialized functions essential for maintaining life and homeostasis. Understanding these systems is foundational in anatomy and physiology.

• Integumentary System: Includes skin, hair, nails; protects the body, regulates temperature, and provides sensory information.

• Skeletal System: Composed of bones and joints; supports and protects organs, enables movement, stores minerals, and produces blood cells.

• Muscular System: Consists of skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscles; responsible for movement, posture, and heat production.

• Nervous System: Brain, spinal cord, nerves; controls body activities through electrical signals, responsible for sensation, movement, and cognition.

• Endocrine System: Glands that secrete hormones; regulates metabolism, growth, and reproduction.

• Cardiovascular System: Heart and blood vessels; transports nutrients, gases, hormones, and wastes throughout the body.

• Lymphatic System: Lymph nodes, vessels, spleen; defends against infection, returns tissue fluids to bloodstream.

• Respiratory System: Lungs and airways; exchanges gases (O2 and CO2) between air and blood.

• Digestive System: Mouth, esophagus, stomach, intestines; breaks down food, absorbs nutrients, eliminates waste.

• Urinary System: Kidneys, ureters, bladder; removes waste from blood, regulates water and electrolyte balance.

• Reproductive System (Male & Female): Organs involved in producing offspring and sex hormones.

Introduction to Chemistry

Bond Types

Chemical bonds are forces that hold atoms together in molecules and compounds. The type of bond affects the properties of the substance.

• Covalent Bonds: Atoms share electron pairs. Can be polar (unequal sharing, resulting in partial charges) or non-polar (equal sharing, no partial charges).

• Ionic Bonds: (Additional info: Not listed but commonly included) Electrons are transferred from one atom to another, creating charged ions.

• Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom (bonded to O or N) and another electronegative atom.

• Van der Waals Forces: Weak, non-specific attractions between molecules due to temporary dipoles.

Partial Charges: Polar covalent bonds result in partial positive and negative charges on different parts of the molecule (e.g., water).

Macromolecules

Major Classes of Macromolecules

Macromolecules are large, complex molecules essential for life. Each class has characteristic monomers and polymers.

• Carbohydrates: Monomer: Monosaccharide (e.g., glucose); Polymer: Polysaccharide (e.g., starch, cellulose).

• Proteins: Monomer: Amino acid; Polymer: Polypeptide/protein.

• Lipids: (Not true polymers) Composed of fatty acids and glycerol; includes fats, oils, steroids.

• Nucleic Acids: Monomer: Nucleotide; Polymer: DNA/RNA.

Examples and Classification

• Starch: Polysaccharide (carbohydrate) composed of glucose monomers.

• Cellulose: Polysaccharide (carbohydrate) found in plant cell walls.

• Sugar - Glucose: Monosaccharide (carbohydrate).

• Sugar - Ribose: Monosaccharide (carbohydrate), component of RNA.

• Amino Acids: Monomers of proteins.

• Nucleotides: Monomers of nucleic acids.

• Fats, Oils: Lipids, composed of fatty acids and glycerol.

• Steroids: Lipids with a characteristic four-ring structure (e.g., cholesterol).

• Enzymes: Proteins that catalyze biochemical reactions.

Additional Review Topics

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment despite external changes.

• Levels of Structural Organization: From smallest to largest: Chemical → Cellular → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism.

• Feedback Loops: Mechanisms that maintain homeostasis; negative feedback reduces the effect of a stimulus, positive feedback amplifies it.

• Periodic Table Information: Provides atomic number, symbol, atomic mass, and sometimes electron configuration for each element.

• Subatomic Particles: Protons (positive charge, mass ≈ 1 amu), Neutrons (no charge, mass ≈ 1 amu), Electrons (negative charge, negligible mass).

• Protein Folding Stages: Primary (amino acid sequence), Secondary (α-helix, β-sheet), Tertiary (3D structure), Quaternary (multiple polypeptides).

• Base Pairing Rules: In DNA: Adenine (A) pairs with Thymine (T), Guanine (G) with Cytosine (C). In RNA, Uracil (U) replaces Thymine.

• pH Scale: Measures acidity/basicity; lower pH = more acidic, higher pH = more basic. Adding H+ ions makes a solution more acidic; adding OH- makes it more basic.

• Enzyme Binding: Affected by temperature, pH, substrate concentration, and inhibitors.

• Proteins vs. Enzymes: All enzymes are proteins, but not all proteins are enzymes. Enzymes specifically catalyze reactions.

Key Table: Macromolecule Classes

Class	Monomer	Polymer	Examples	Main Function
Carbohydrates	Monosaccharide	Polysaccharide	Glucose, Starch, Cellulose	Energy storage, structure
Proteins	Amino acid	Polypeptide	Enzymes, Hemoglobin	Catalysis, structure, transport
Lipids	Fatty acids, Glycerol	Not true polymers	Fats, Oils, Steroids	Energy storage, membranes, hormones
Nucleic Acids	Nucleotide	DNA, RNA	DNA, RNA	Genetic information storage and transfer

Key Equations

• pH Calculation: $pH = -\log_{10}[H^+]$

• Atomic Mass Calculation: $\text{Atomic Mass} = \text{Number of Protons} + \text{Number of Neutrons}$

Additional info: Some content (e.g., ionic bonds, atomic mass formula) was inferred for completeness based on standard Anatomy & Physiology curriculum.