Module #1 Study Guide: Overview of Anatomy & Physiology, Basic Chemistry, Cells and Tissues, Skin and Body Membranes

Chapter 1: Overview of Anatomy & Physiology

Anatomy and Physiology: Definitions and Relationship

• Anatomy is the study of the structure and shape of the body and its parts.

• Physiology is the study of the function of body parts and how they work.

• Structure and function are closely related; for example, the thin, flat shape of simple squamous epithelial cells is ideal for diffusion.

Levels of Structural Organization

• There are six levels: Chemical, Cellular, Tissue, Organ, Organ System, Organismal.

• Each level builds upon the previous, increasing complexity.

• Organ systems often work together and have multiple functions.

Necessary Life Functions

• Maintaining boundaries: Separation between internal and external environments (e.g., skin).

• Movement: Includes movement of the body and substances within it.

• Responsiveness: Ability to sense and respond to stimuli.

• Nutrient intake and digestion: Taking in and breaking down food.

• Metabolism: All chemical reactions in the body.

• Disposal of wastes: Removing waste products.

• Growth: Increase in size and cell number.

• Reproduction: Producing offspring.

Survival Needs

• Nutrients, Oxygen, Water, Stable body temperature, Atmospheric pressure, and Balance are essential for survival.

Anatomical Language and Position

• Learning anatomical terms is crucial for communication and understanding diagrams.

• Anatomical position: Standing upright, facing forward, arms at sides, palms forward.

• Used as a reference for directional and regional terms.

Directional Terms, Body Planes, and Cavities

• Directional terms: Superior, inferior, anterior, posterior, medial, lateral, proximal, distal, superficial, deep.

• Body planes: Sagittal, frontal (coronal), transverse.

• Body cavities: Dorsal (cranial, spinal), ventral (thoracic, abdominopelvic).

Homeostasis

• Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment.

• Most controls operate via negative feedback: Response counteracts the change (e.g., temperature regulation).

• Positive feedback is rare: Response amplifies the change (e.g., labor, blood clotting).

• Three main parts: Receptor (detects change), Control center (processes information), Effector (acts to restore balance).

Chapter 2: Basic Chemistry

Matter and Energy

• Matter is anything that occupies space and has mass.

• Energy is the ability to do work; forms include kinetic, chemical, mechanical, electrical, and potential.

• Chemical energy is stored in bonds between atoms.

Atoms and Elements

• Atoms are the smallest units of matter; composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons.

• CHON (Carbon, Hydrogen, Oxygen, Nitrogen) make up 96% of living matter.

• Lesser elements (phosphorus, calcium, potassium) and trace elements (chromium, cobalt, copper) are also important.

• Atoms are electrically neutral unless they become ions (cations: more protons; anions: more electrons).

• Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons; some are radioisotopes used in medical imaging.

Atomic Number, Weight, and Mass

• Atomic number: Number of protons.

• Atomic mass: Sum of protons and neutrons.

• Atomic weight: Average mass of all isotopes.

Molecules, Compounds, and Chemical Bonds

• Molecule: Two or more atoms bonded together.

• Compound: Molecule with atoms of different elements; has emergent properties.

• Types of bonds: Ionic, Polar covalent, Nonpolar covalent, Hydrogen.

• Hydrogen bonds are important in water, a polar molecule.

Chemical Reactions

• Decomposition: Breaking down molecules (e.g., digestion).

• Synthesis: Building molecules (e.g., protein synthesis).

• All reactions are reversible; chemical equilibrium is when forward and reverse rates are equal.

• Factors affecting reaction rate: Temperature, concentration, size.

Organic and Inorganic Compounds

• Organic compounds contain carbon; examples: carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.

• Inorganic compounds do not contain carbon; water is the most important.

• Water's properties: High heat capacity, solvent, reactivity, cushioning.

Acids, Bases, and pH

• Acid: Proton donor.

• Base: Proton acceptor.

• pH measures hydrogen ion concentration; scale is logarithmic.

• Blood pH: 7.35–7.45, maintained by carbon dioxide buffering.

• Buffer: Substance that resists changes in pH.

pH Equation

$\mathrm{pH} = -\log_{10}[\mathrm{H}^+]$

Hydrolysis and Dehydration Synthesis

• Hydrolysis: Breaking bonds by adding water.

• Dehydration synthesis: Forming bonds by removing water.

Biological Molecules

• Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; monosaccharides (glucose, fructose, galactose), disaccharides (maltose, lactose, sucrose), polysaccharides (starch, glycogen).

• Lipids: Triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids, cholesterol; not soluble in water, release more energy than carbohydrates or proteins.

• Saturated fats: No double bonds, solid at room temperature (e.g., butter).

• Unsaturated fats: One or more double bonds, liquid at room temperature (e.g., vegetable oils).

• Trans fats: Chemically modified oils, increase heart disease risk.

• Proteins: Polypeptide chains of amino acids; 20 types, sequence determines function.

• Protein structure: Primary, secondary, tertiary, quaternary.

• Fibrous proteins: Structural (e.g., collagen); Globular proteins: Functional (e.g., enzymes).

• Enzymes: Catalysts, speed up reactions, highly specific, reusable.

• Nucleic acids: DNA and RNA; composed of sugar backbone and nitrogenous base.

• DNA: Double helix, base pairing (A-T, C-G), genetic material in nucleus.

• RNA: Single-stranded, involved in transcription and translation, contains uracil instead of thymine.

• ATP: Energy currency, structure allows rapid energy release.

ATP Hydrolysis Equation

$\mathrm{ATP} + \mathrm{H}_2\mathrm{O} \rightarrow \mathrm{ADP} + \mathrm{P}_i + \text{energy}$

Chapter 3: Cells and Tissues

Cell Structure and Function

• Humans are eukaryotes; cells have a true nucleus.

• Basic cell parts: Plasma membrane, Nucleus, Cytoplasm.

• Cytoplasm: Area between membrane and nucleus; cytosol is the fluid portion.

• Cell junctions: Tight (prevent leakage), Gap (communication), Desmosomes (anchoring).

• Important cell types: Fibroblasts, Epithelial cells, Myocytes (muscle cells).

Cell Transport Mechanisms

• Diffusion: Passive movement from high to low concentration; includes facilitated diffusion.

• Osmosis: Diffusion of water across a membrane.

• Filtration: Movement due to hydrostatic pressure.

• Active transport: Requires ATP; moves substances against gradient (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

• Vesicular transport: Bulk movement; exocytosis (out), endocytosis (in).

Sodium-Potassium Pump Equation

$3\ \mathrm{Na}^+\ \text{out} / 2\ \mathrm{K}^+\ \text{in}$

Cell Cycle and Mitosis

• Cell cycle: Series of events leading to cell division.

• Mitosis: Division of nucleus; cytokinesis: Division of cytoplasm.

• Phases of mitosis: Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase.

Transcription and Translation

• Transcription: DNA to RNA, occurs in nucleus.

• Translation: RNA to protein, occurs in cytoplasm.

• RNA types: mRNA (messenger), tRNA (transfer), rRNA (ribosomal).

• RNA contains uracil; DNA contains thymine.

Tissue Types

• Four major types: Epithelial, Connective, Muscle, Nervous.

• Epithelial tissue: Covers surfaces, lines cavities; simple (one layer) vs. stratified (multiple layers).

• Endocrine glands: Secrete hormones into blood; Exocrine glands: Secrete onto surfaces.

• Connective tissue: Most diverse; includes bone, blood, cartilage; has extracellular matrix (ground substance and fibers).

• Muscle tissue: Skeletal, cardiac, smooth; responsible for movement.

• Nervous tissue: Conducts electrical impulses.

Tissue Repair and Inflammation

• Steps: Inflammation, organization, regeneration.

Chapter 4: Skin and Body Membranes

Body Membranes

• Types: Cutaneous (skin), Mucous (lines cavities open to exterior), Serous (lines closed cavities), Synovial (joints), Epithelial, Connective.

• Each has specific structure and location.

Integumentary System

• Includes skin, sweat and oil glands, hair, nails.

• Functions: Protection, temperature regulation, sensation, excretion.

Skin Structure

• Two main layers: Epidermis (outer, avascular), Dermis (inner, vascular).

• Layers of epidermis (deep to superficial): Stratum basale, stratum spinosum, stratum granulosum, stratum lucidum, stratum corneum.

• Dermis: Papillary layer (upper), Reticular layer (lower).

Pigments and Skin Color

• Three pigments: Melanin, Carotene, Hemoglobin.

• Imbalances: Redness, cyanosis, pallor, jaundice, bruising.

Skin Appendages

• Includes sweat glands, oil glands, hair, nails.

• Functions and locations vary; glands secrete different substances.

Hair and Nails

• Hair: Structure includes root, shaft, follicle; functions in protection and sensation.

• Nails: Structure includes nail plate, bed, matrix; functions in protection.

• Keratin: Protein in skin, hair, nails; resists desiccation and mechanical trauma.

Homeostatic Imbalances of Skin

• Burns: Rule of nines estimates affected area; degrees (first, second, third, fourth) indicate severity.

• Skin cancer: Basal cell, squamous cell, melanoma; each has distinct characteristics.

• Other disorders: Infections, allergies, etc.

Rule of Nines Table (for Burns)

Body Region	Percent of Total Body Surface Area
Head and Neck	9%
Each Arm	9%
Each Leg	18%
Anterior Trunk	18%
Posterior Trunk	18%
Perineum	1%

Skin Cancer Comparison Table

Type	Origin	Appearance	Risk
Basal Cell Carcinoma	Basal cells of epidermis	Pearly, dome-shaped	Low
Squamous Cell Carcinoma	Keratinocytes of epidermis	Scaly, red patches	Moderate
Melanoma	Melanocytes	Dark, irregular	High

Example: The skin protects against pathogens, prevents water loss, and regulates temperature through sweat glands.

Additional info: Academic context was added to clarify definitions, provide examples, and expand on brief points for completeness.