Practice Exam Study Guide: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

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Cell Structure and Function

Cellular Organelles and Their Functions

Cells contain specialized structures called organelles that perform distinct functions necessary for cellular life and homeostasis.

Mitochondria: Organelles responsible for producing ATP through cellular respiration; often called the "powerhouse" of the cell.
Ribosomes: Sites of protein synthesis, where amino acids are assembled into proteins based on mRNA instructions.
Lysosomes: Organelles containing digestive enzymes that break down waste materials and cellular debris.
Golgi Apparatus: Modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion or delivery to other organelles.
Nucleus: Contains the cell's genetic material (DNA) and controls cellular activities.

Example: Ribosomes are abundant in cells that produce large amounts of protein, such as pancreatic cells.

Cell Membrane Structure

The plasma membrane is a selectively permeable barrier composed primarily of a double layer of phospholipids with embedded proteins.

Phospholipid Bilayer: Provides fluidity and flexibility; has hydrophilic (water-attracting) heads and hydrophobic (water-repelling) tails.
Proteins: Serve as channels, carriers, receptors, and enzymes.
Carbohydrates: Attached to proteins and lipids on the extracellular surface, important for cell recognition.

Key Point: The amphipathic nature of phospholipids (having both hydrophilic and hydrophobic regions) is essential for membrane function.

Cellular Transport Mechanisms

Cells regulate the movement of substances across their membranes through various transport mechanisms.

Passive Transport: Movement of substances down their concentration gradient without energy input (e.g., diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion).
Active Transport: Movement of substances against their concentration gradient, requiring energy (usually ATP).
Endocytosis and Exocytosis: Bulk transport mechanisms involving vesicle formation to move large particles or volumes into (endocytosis) or out of (exocytosis) the cell.

Example: Sodium-potassium pumps use ATP to move Na+ out of and K+ into the cell.

Genetics and Molecular Biology

DNA, RNA, and Protein Synthesis

Genetic information is stored in DNA and used to direct the synthesis of proteins through transcription and translation.

DNA Replication: The process by which DNA makes a copy of itself before cell division. It is semiconservative, meaning each new DNA molecule consists of one old and one new strand.
Transcription: The synthesis of messenger RNA (mRNA) from a DNA template.
Translation: The process by which ribosomes synthesize proteins using the sequence of codons in mRNA.

Key Enzymes: DNA polymerase (replication), RNA polymerase (transcription), ribosomes (translation).

Example: The sequence of events in protein synthesis is: DNA → transcription → RNA → translation → protein.

Genetic Code and Mutations

Codons: Triplets of nucleotides in mRNA that code for specific amino acids.
Genes: Segments of DNA that code for proteins.
Mutations: Changes in the DNA sequence that can affect protein structure and function.

Biochemistry and Macromolecules

Organic Molecules

Living organisms are composed of four major classes of organic macromolecules:

Carbohydrates: Sugars and starches; primary energy source. Monomer: monosaccharide (e.g., glucose).
Lipids: Fats, oils, and steroids; important for energy storage and membrane structure. Mostly nonpolar.
Proteins: Polymers of amino acids; serve as enzymes, structural components, and signaling molecules.
Nucleic Acids: DNA and RNA; store and transmit genetic information. Monomer: nucleotide.

Chemical Bonds and Water

Covalent Bonds: Formed when two atoms share pairs of electrons.
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom with a partial positive charge and another atom with a partial negative charge (e.g., between water molecules).
Polarity: Water is a polar molecule, leading to unique properties such as cohesion, adhesion, and high heat capacity.

Enzymes and Catalysis

Enzymes are biological catalysts that speed up chemical reactions by lowering activation energy. They are usually proteins and are highly specific for their substrates.

Cellular Organization and Levels of Organization

Levels of Structural Organization

Biological systems are organized hierarchically from simplest to most complex:

Atom → Molecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism

Example: Muscle tissue (tissue level) is composed of muscle cells (cellular level), which contain mitochondria (organelle level).

Membrane Transport and Solutions

Types of Solutions and Osmosis

Isotonic: Solution with the same solute concentration as the cell; no net water movement.
Hypertonic: Solution with higher solute concentration than the cell; water moves out, cell shrinks.
Hypotonic: Solution with lower solute concentration than the cell; water moves in, cell swells.

Active vs. Passive Transport

Passive Transport: Includes simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, and osmosis; does not require energy.
Active Transport: Requires energy to move substances against their concentration gradient (e.g., sodium-potassium pump).

Anatomical Terminology and Body Organization

Directional Terms

Standard anatomical terms describe the locations and relationships of body parts:

Anterior (ventral): Toward the front of the body
Posterior (dorsal): Toward the back of the body
Superior (cranial): Toward the head
Inferior (caudal): Toward the feet
Proximal: Closer to the point of attachment
Distal: Farther from the point of attachment
Medial: Toward the midline
Lateral: Away from the midline

Body Planes

Frontal (coronal) plane: Divides the body into anterior and posterior parts.
Transverse (horizontal) plane: Divides the body into superior and inferior parts.
Sagittal plane: Divides the body into right and left parts.

Sample Table: Comparison of Transport Mechanisms

Transport Type	Energy Required?	Direction	Example
Simple Diffusion	No	Down gradient	O2 across membrane
Facilitated Diffusion	No	Down gradient	Glucose via carrier protein
Active Transport	Yes (ATP)	Against gradient	Na+/K+ pump
Osmosis	No	Down water gradient	Water across membrane
Endocytosis	Yes	Bulk into cell	Phagocytosis
Exocytosis	Yes	Bulk out of cell	Secretion of hormones

Key Equations and Definitions

Osmosis: The diffusion of water across a selectively permeable membrane.
Homeostasis: The maintenance of a stable internal environment.
Semiconservative Replication:
pH:
Enzyme: A protein that acts as a biological catalyst.

Additional info:

Some questions reference anatomical planes and directions, which are foundational for describing locations and movements in the human body.
Questions on macromolecules, chemical bonds, and water properties are essential for understanding the biochemical basis of physiology.
Transport mechanisms (active, passive, bulk) are central to cell physiology and homeostasis.
Genetic processes (replication, transcription, translation) are fundamental for cell function and inheritance.