Study Guide: Human Body Orientation & Chemistry Foundations (ANP College)

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CH 01. The Human Body: An Orientation

Anatomical Position

The anatomical position is a standardized posture used as a reference in anatomy to ensure consistency when describing locations and directions on the human body.

Definition: The body stands upright, facing forward, arms at the sides, palms facing forward, feet together.
Importance: Provides a universal frame of reference for anatomical terminology.
Example: The thumb is lateral to the little finger in anatomical position.

Homeostasis: Negative and Positive Feedback

Homeostasis is the maintenance of a stable internal environment in the body. Feedback systems regulate physiological processes to keep conditions within set limits.

Negative Feedback: A process that reverses a change, returning the system to its set point. Most body systems use negative feedback (e.g., temperature regulation).
Positive Feedback: A process that amplifies a change, moving the system further from its set point (e.g., blood clotting, childbirth).
Example: When blood glucose rises, insulin is released to lower it (negative feedback).

CH 02. Chemistry Comes Alive

Atomic Structure

Atoms are the basic units of matter, composed of three main subatomic particles.

Proton: Positively charged particle found in the nucleus.
Neutron: Neutral particle found in the nucleus.
Electron: Negatively charged particle orbiting the nucleus.
Example: Hydrogen atom has 1 proton, 0 neutrons, 1 electron.

Chemical Elements

A chemical element is a substance made of only one type of atom. Four elements form the bulk of body matter:

Carbon (C)
Hydrogen (H)
Oxygen (O)
Nitrogen (N)

Chemical Bonds

Chemical bonds are forces that hold atoms together in molecules.

Ionic Bonds: Formed when electrons are transferred from one atom to another, creating charged ions.
Covalent Bonds: Formed when atoms share electrons. Non-polar covalent bonds share electrons equally; polar covalent bonds share electrons unequally.
Hydrogen Bonds: Weak attractions between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom (e.g., oxygen or nitrogen).
Example: Water molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds.

Organic vs Inorganic Compounds

Compounds in the body are classified as organic or inorganic.

Organic Compounds: Contain carbon; include carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids.
Inorganic Compounds: Do not contain carbon; include water, salts, acids, bases.
Example: Glucose (organic), sodium chloride (inorganic).

Hydrophilic vs Hydrophobic Compounds

Compounds interact with water differently based on their structure.

Hydrophilic: "Water-loving"; dissolve easily in water (e.g., salts, sugars).
Hydrophobic: "Water-fearing"; do not dissolve in water (e.g., oils, fats).
Example: Cell membranes contain hydrophobic lipid tails.

Carbohydrates: Structure and Function

Carbohydrates are organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen. They serve as the body's main energy source.

Building Blocks: Monosaccharides (simple sugars, e.g., glucose).
General Structure: Ring-shaped molecules; can form disaccharides and polysaccharides.
Biological Functions: Energy storage, structural support (e.g., cellulose in plants).
Example: Glycogen is a polysaccharide stored in the liver.

Lipids: Structure and Function

Lipids are hydrophobic organic molecules important for energy storage and cell structure.

Building Blocks: Fatty acids and glycerol.
General Structure: Long hydrocarbon chains; include triglycerides, phospholipids, steroids.
Biological Functions: Energy storage, insulation, cell membrane structure, hormone production.
Example: Phospholipids form the bilayer of cell membranes.

Proteins: Structure and Function

Proteins are complex organic molecules essential for structure, function, and regulation of the body's tissues and organs.

Building Blocks: Amino acids.
General Structure: Chains of amino acids linked by peptide bonds.
Biological Functions: Enzymes, structural support, transport, signaling.
Example: Hemoglobin transports oxygen in blood.

Levels of Protein Structure & Denaturation

Proteins have four structural levels, each critical for their function.

Primary: Sequence of amino acids.
Secondary: Local folding (alpha helices, beta sheets).
Tertiary: Overall 3D shape.
Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains joined.
Denaturation: Loss of protein structure due to heat, pH, or chemicals; results in loss of function.
Example: Cooking an egg denatures its proteins.

DNA vs RNA

DNA and RNA are nucleic acids with distinct roles in genetics and cell function.

DNA: Double-stranded, stores genetic information, uses deoxyribose sugar.
RNA: Single-stranded, involved in protein synthesis, uses ribose sugar.
Example: mRNA carries instructions from DNA to ribosomes.

ATP and Cell Metabolism

ATP (Adenosine Triphosphate) is the primary energy carrier in cells.

Role: Provides energy for cellular processes (muscle contraction, active transport).
Structure: Contains adenine, ribose, and three phosphate groups.
Equation:
Example: ATP is used during muscle contraction.