Study Notes on Learning: Classical Conditioning, Operant Conditioning, and Observational Learning

Learning as Behaviour

Definition and Principles

Learning in psychology is primarily defined through behaviourism as a permanent change in behaviour resulting from experience. This change is observable and not due to illness, injury, maturation, or innate reflexes.

• Permanent Change in Behaviour: Learning is confirmed when a person consistently demonstrates a new skill or behaviour (e.g., tying shoes).

• Experience-Based: Learning occurs through interaction with the environment, not through biological maturation or reflexes.

• Excludes Innate Behaviours: Reflexes such as the knee jerk or startle reflex are not learned but are innate.

• Main Methods of Learning: Behaviourists identify three primary methods:

  • Classical Conditioning

  • Operant Conditioning

  • Observational Learning

Classical Conditioning

Pavlov’s Experiments

Classical conditioning was first systematically studied by Ivan Pavlov using dogs. It involves pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that naturally elicits a response, eventually causing the neutral stimulus to elicit the same response.

• Unconditioned Response (UR): A natural reaction to a stimulus (e.g., salivating to food).

• Unconditioned Stimulus (US): The stimulus that naturally triggers the response (e.g., food).

• Conditioned Stimulus (CS): A previously neutral stimulus that, after association with the US, triggers a conditioned response (e.g., bell).

• Conditioned Response (CR): The learned response to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., salivating to the bell).

• Example: Pavlov’s dogs learned to associate the sound of a bell (CS) with food (US), eventually salivating (CR) at the bell alone.

Timing in Classical Conditioning

The timing between the conditioned stimulus and the unconditioned stimulus is crucial for effective learning.

Type of Conditioning	Description	Example
Short-delayed conditioning	US occurs shortly after CS	Lightning (CS) followed by thunder (US) after 3 seconds
Long-delayed conditioning	US occurs after a longer delay following CS	Sirens (CS) followed by event (US) after 30 seconds
Trace conditioning	US occurs after CS has ended	Rotten sushi (CS) followed by illness (US) after 3 hours
Simultaneous conditioning	US and CS occur together	Lightning and thunderclap at the same time
Backward conditioning	US occurs before CS	Thunderclap (US) followed by lightning (CS) after 6 seconds

• Best Learning: Short-delayed conditioning is most effective.

• Trace and backward conditioning: Usually less effective due to poor association.

• Additional info: Simultaneous and backward conditioning can suppress learning or produce weaker associations.

Applications and Everyday Examples

• Superstitions: Associating unrelated events due to their temporal proximity (e.g., lucky hat in sports).

• Emotional Responses: Conditioning can influence emotional reactions, such as fear or pleasure.

• Example: John Watson’s experiment with “Little Albert” demonstrated conditioned fear responses in humans.

Extinction and Spontaneous Recovery

• Extinction: The conditioned response diminishes when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus.

• Spontaneous Recovery: After a rest period, the conditioned response may reappear when the conditioned stimulus is presented again, but it is usually weaker and short-lived.

Generalization and Discrimination

• Generalization: The conditioned response occurs to stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus (e.g., different tones).

• Discrimination: Learning to respond only to the specific conditioned stimulus and not to similar stimuli.

Higher Order Conditioning

• Definition: A conditioned stimulus is paired with a new neutral stimulus, creating a new conditioned response.

• Example: A dog trained to salivate to a bell can be further conditioned to salivate to a light if the light is paired with the bell.

Operant Conditioning

Principles and Definitions

Operant conditioning focuses on how consequences shape voluntary behaviour. Behaviours are strengthened or weakened based on the outcomes they produce.

• Reinforcement: Increases the likelihood of a behaviour.

  • Positive Reinforcement: Adding something pleasant (e.g., treat, praise).

  • Negative Reinforcement: Removing something unpleasant (e.g., ending discomfort).

• Punishment: Decreases the likelihood of a behaviour.

  • Positive Punishment: Adding something unpleasant (e.g., extra chores).

  • Negative Punishment: Removing something pleasant (e.g., taking away privileges).

• Shaping: Gradually teaching a complex behaviour by reinforcing successive approximations toward the desired behaviour.

• Example: Teaching a child to tie their shoes by rewarding each step closer to the complete behaviour.

Reinforcement Schedules

Reinforcement can be delivered on different schedules, affecting the rate and persistence of behaviour.

Schedule Type	Description	Example
Continuous	Reinforcement after every response	Giving a treat every time a dog sits
Partial (Intermittent)	Reinforcement after some responses	Slot machines pay out after a variable number of plays
Fixed Ratio	Reinforcement after a set number of responses	Piecework pay
Variable Ratio	Reinforcement after a variable number of responses	Gambling
Fixed Interval	Reinforcement after a set time period	Salary paid every two weeks
Variable Interval	Reinforcement after varying time intervals	Checking for a randomly arriving email

• Variable schedules: More resistant to extinction and produce higher response rates.

Primary and Secondary Reinforcers

• Primary Reinforcers: Naturally reinforcing (e.g., food, warmth, pain relief).

• Secondary Reinforcers: Learned value (e.g., money, praise, success).

Extinction, Generalization, and Discrimination in Operant Conditioning

• Extinction: Occurs when reinforcement is no longer provided, leading to a decrease in behaviour.

• Spontaneous Recovery: Temporary reappearance of the behaviour after extinction.

• Generalization: Responding to similar stimuli that were previously reinforced.

• Discrimination: Learning to respond only to specific stimuli that signal reinforcement.

Applications of Operant Conditioning

• Parenting and Education: Used to encourage desired behaviours and discourage undesired ones.

• Token Economies: Systems where tokens are given for desired behaviours and exchanged for rewards.

• Behaviour Modification: Used in schools, mental health centres, and prisons to reinforce socially acceptable behaviours.

Observational Learning

Principles and Mechanisms

Observational learning occurs by watching others and imitating their actions, especially when the model is rewarded or punished.

• Attention: Observers must pay attention to the model.

• Retention: Observers must remember the behaviour.

• Reproduction: Observers must be able to perform the behaviour.

• Motivation: Observers must be motivated to imitate the behaviour.

• Example: Children learn social behaviours, attitudes, and skills by observing parents, peers, and media figures.

Applications and Effects

• Socialization: Observational learning helps individuals adapt to social norms and expectations.

• Aggression and Violence: Studies (e.g., Bandura’s Bobo doll experiment) show that children imitate aggressive behaviours seen in adults or media.

• Positive Behaviours: Media can also promote prosocial behaviours, such as sharing and helping.

Additional info:

• Observational learning is especially influential in ambiguous situations where individuals are unsure how to behave.

• Repeated exposure to behaviours increases the likelihood of imitation.