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General Biology: Evolution and Biotechnology

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  • Define evolution

    Evolution is the change in allele frequencies in a population over time, leading to biological diversity and adaptation.

  • Why is biological evolution considered a theory rather than a hypothesis?

    Because it is supported by extensive evidence and explains a wide range of observations, not just a testable guess.

  • What does the Hardy-Weinberg theorem determine?

    It determines whether a population is in genetic equilibrium, meaning allele frequencies remain constant across generations without evolutionary forces.

  • What does it mean if a population is out of Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium?

    It means evolutionary forces like mutation, selection, gene flow, or genetic drift are acting on the population.

  • List four mechanisms that contribute to evolution

    Mutation, gene flow (migration), genetic drift, and natural selection.

  • How do mutation, gene flow, genetic drift, and natural selection differ in their impact?

    Mutation introduces new alleles; gene flow moves alleles between populations; genetic drift causes random allele frequency changes; natural selection favors beneficial alleles.

  • What determines if a mutation is deleterious, beneficial, or neutral?

    Its effect on an organism's fitness; many point mutations are neutral because they do not affect protein function.

  • How does genetic drift affect small vs. large populations?

    Drift has a stronger effect in small populations, causing greater random changes; in large populations, its effect is weaker.

  • What are the bottleneck and founder effects?

    They are examples of genetic drift where population size reduction or new population founding causes loss of genetic diversity.

  • Why is loss of alleles and genetic diversity problematic for populations?

    It limits the ability to adapt to new environmental conditions and reduces evolutionary potential.

  • Can natural selection preserve or create genetic variation?

    No, selection tends to reduce variation by favoring certain alleles; variation arises mainly from mutation and gene flow.

  • What factors limit adaptive evolution?

    Genetic constraints, environmental changes, and trade-offs prevent evolution from producing perfect organisms.

  • What conditions must be met for natural selection to occur?

    Variation in traits, heritability, differential survival or reproduction, and competition for resources.

  • Define fitness in evolutionary terms

    Fitness is an organism's ability to survive and reproduce; relative fitness compares this ability among genotypes.

  • What are abiotic and biotic factors in selection pressure?

    Abiotic factors are nonliving (e.g., climate), biotic factors are living (e.g., predators); both influence survival and reproduction.

  • How does sexual selection cause evolutionary change?

    By favoring traits that increase mating success through intrasexual (competition) or intersexual (mate choice) selection.

  • Compare stabilizing, directional, and disruptive selection

    Stabilizing favors average traits, directional favors one extreme, disruptive favors both extremes, affecting population diversity differently.

  • How does inbreeding affect populations?

    It increases homozygosity and can change genotype frequencies but does not cause evolutionary change by itself.

  • Define genome and genomics

    Genome is the complete set of DNA in an organism; genomics is the study of genomes and their functions.

  • What is gene cloning and its use?

    Gene cloning copies specific DNA sequences for research, medicine, or biotechnology applications.

  • What is bacterial transformation?

    Introducing foreign DNA into bacteria to produce proteins or study genes.

  • Describe polymerase chain reaction (PCR)

    PCR amplifies specific DNA sequences rapidly for analysis or cloning.

  • What is DNA sequencing used for?

    Determining the exact order of nucleotides in DNA to study genes and genomes.

  • What is gene therapy?

    Introducing or correcting genes in patients to treat genetic diseases.

  • What is CRISPR technology?

    A precise gene-editing tool that can modify DNA sequences in living organisms.

  • How do PCR and sequencing differ from DNA synthesis in cells?

    PCR and sequencing are lab techniques to copy or read DNA; DNA synthesis in cells is natural replication and transcription.

  • How does the COVID-19 vaccine relate to biotechnology?

    It uses genetic information and cellular processes to stimulate immunity, based on biotechnology methods like mRNA technology.