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General Biology Exam 2 Review

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  • Structure and function of DNA

    DNA is a double helix composed of nucleotides with a sugar-phosphate backbone and nitrogenous bases that store genetic information.

  • DNA replication

    DNA replication is the process of copying DNA before cell division, involving enzymes like DNA polymerase and helicase.

  • Flow of genetic information in eukaryotic cells

    Genetic information flows from DNA to RNA (transcription) and then from RNA to protein (translation).

  • Mutations and mutagens

    Mutations are changes in DNA sequence; mutagens are agents that cause mutations, such as UV light or chemicals.

  • Viruses

    Viruses are infectious agents that require host cells to replicate and can affect genetic material.

  • Gene regulation in bacteria vs. eukaryotes

    Bacteria regulate genes often via operons; eukaryotes use complex mechanisms including enhancers and chromatin remodeling.

  • Cell signaling

    Cell signaling involves communication between cells using chemical signals to regulate cellular activities.

  • DNA microarray

    A DNA microarray is a tool to measure expression levels of many genes simultaneously.

  • Cloning

    Cloning produces genetically identical organisms or cells from a single ancestor.

  • Stem cells

    Stem cells are undifferentiated cells capable of giving rise to various specialized cell types.

  • Genetic basis of cancer

    Cancer involves mutations in oncogenes and proto-oncogenes, influenced by carcinogens and growth factors.

  • Recombinant DNA techniques

    Methods to combine DNA from different sources to create new genetic combinations.

  • GMOs

    Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) have altered genomes for desired traits.

  • Restriction enzymes

    Restriction enzymes cut DNA at specific sequences, useful in genetic engineering.

  • CRISPR-Cas9

    CRISPR-Cas9 is a gene-editing tool that allows precise DNA modifications.

  • Human gene therapy

    Gene therapy aims to treat diseases by correcting defective genes in patients.

  • PCR (Polymerase Chain Reaction)

    PCR amplifies specific DNA sequences exponentially for analysis.

  • STR (Short Tandem Repeats)

    STRs are repeating DNA sequences used in genetic fingerprinting.

  • Gel electrophoresis

    Gel electrophoresis separates DNA fragments by size using an electric field.

  • Bioinformatics

    Bioinformatics uses computational tools to analyze biological data like DNA sequences.

  • Human Genome Project

    The Human Genome Project mapped the entire human DNA sequence.

  • Cell division

    Cell division includes mitosis and meiosis, processes for growth and reproduction.

  • Sexual vs. asexual reproduction

    Sexual reproduction involves two parents and genetic variation; asexual reproduction produces clones from one parent.

  • Cell cycle

    The cell cycle includes phases G1, S, G2, and M for cell growth and division.

  • Mitosis basics and outcomes

    Mitosis produces two identical diploid daughter cells for growth and repair.

  • Meiosis basics and outcomes

    Meiosis produces four genetically diverse haploid gametes for sexual reproduction.

  • Origins of genetic variation

    Genetic variation arises from independent assortment and crossing over during meiosis.

  • When meiosis goes wrong - Down syndrome

    Down syndrome results from nondisjunction causing an extra chromosome 21.

  • Genotype vs. phenotype

    Genotype is the genetic makeup; phenotype is the observable trait.

  • Law of independent assortment

    Alleles of different genes assort independently during gamete formation.