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General Biology Final Exam Study Guide

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  • Arrangement of subatomic particles in an atom

    Protons and neutrons are located in the nucleus; electrons orbit the nucleus in electron shells.

  • How is atomic number determined?

    The atomic number is the number of protons in the nucleus of an atom.

  • How is atomic mass determined?

    The atomic mass is the sum of the number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus.

  • Relationship between pH and hydrogen ion concentration

    pH is the negative logarithm of hydrogen ion concentration: \(pH = -\log[H^+]\).

  • Identify common functional groups

    Functional groups include hydroxyl, carbonyl, carboxyl, amino, phosphate, and methyl groups, each with distinct structures and properties.

  • Monomers of carbohydrates

    Monosaccharides like glucose are the monomers of carbohydrates.

  • Monomers of lipids

    Lipids are not true polymers but are made of glycerol and fatty acids.

  • Monomers of proteins

    Amino acids are the monomers of proteins.

  • Monomers of nucleic acids

    Nucleotides are the monomers of nucleic acids.

  • Function of the cytoskeleton

    The cytoskeleton provides structural support, shape, and facilitates cell movement.

  • Function of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)

    The rough ER synthesizes proteins; the smooth ER synthesizes lipids and detoxifies chemicals.

  • Function of lysosomes

    Lysosomes contain enzymes that digest macromolecules and recycle cellular components.

  • Function of mitochondria

    Mitochondria generate ATP through cellular respiration.

  • Function of the nucleus

    The nucleus stores genetic material and controls cellular activities.

  • Osmosis and water movement

    Water moves from areas of low solute concentration to high solute concentration across a semipermeable membrane by osmosis.

  • Basic stages of cellular respiration

    Stages: Glycolysis, Citric Acid Cycle, and Electron Transport Chain; inputs and outputs vary per stage.

  • Basic stages of photosynthesis

    Includes the light reactions (in thylakoid membranes) and the Calvin cycle (in stroma).

  • Chromosome number changes during cell cycle and meiosis

    Chromosome number and DNA content vary; meiosis reduces chromosome number by half to form gametes.

  • Definitions: homozygous, heterozygous, phenotype, genotype, gene, allele

    Homozygous: two identical alleles; heterozygous: two different alleles; phenotype: observable traits; genotype: genetic makeup; gene: DNA segment; allele: gene variant.

  • Phenotypic and genotypic ratios in monohybrid crosses

    Ratios depend on dominance type: complete, incomplete, co-dominance, or sex linkage affect offspring traits.

  • Basic model of DNA structure

    DNA is a double helix with antiparallel strands and directionality from 5' to 3' ends.

  • Transcription of DNA sequence

    DNA is transcribed into RNA in the 5' to 3' direction complementary to the template strand.

  • Functions of translation components

    mRNA carries code; tRNA brings amino acids; ribosomes assemble proteins.