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General Biology Key Concepts

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  • Sexual vs Asexual reproduction
    Sexual reproduction involves two parents and produces genetically diverse offspring; asexual reproduction involves one parent and produces genetically identical offspring.
  • Diploid vs Haploid
    Diploid cells have two sets of chromosomes (2n), one from each parent; haploid cells have one set of chromosomes (n), typical of gametes.
  • Mitosis vs Meiosis
    Mitosis produces two identical diploid somatic cells; meiosis produces four genetically diverse haploid gametes.
  • Somatic cell vs Reproductive cell
    Somatic cells are body cells with diploid chromosome number; reproductive cells (gametes) are haploid and involved in sexual reproduction.
  • Importance of meiosis
    Meiosis reduces chromosome number by half to produce haploid gametes and increases genetic variation through crossing over during prophase I.
  • Homologous chromosomes
    Pairs of chromosomes, one from each parent, that are similar in shape and gene sequence; found paired during meiosis I.
  • Genetic variation in sexual vs asexual reproduction
    Sexual reproduction creates variation via meiosis and fertilization; asexual reproduction produces clones with little variation.
  • Cell division in prokaryotes and eukaryotes
    Essential for growth, repair, and reproduction; prokaryotes divide by binary fission, eukaryotes by mitosis or meiosis.
  • Binary fission in prokaryotes
    A form of asexual reproduction where the cell duplicates its DNA and divides into two identical daughter cells.
  • Prokaryotic vs Eukaryotic chromosomes
    Prokaryotes have a single circular chromosome; eukaryotes have multiple linear chromosomes within a nucleus.
  • Sister chromatids
    Identical copies of a chromosome connected at the centromere formed during DNA replication; separated during mitosis.
  • Phases of the cell cycle
    Includes G1 (growth), S (DNA replication), G2 (preparation), and M (mitosis and cytokinesis); checkpoints regulate progression.
  • Phases of mitosis
    Prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase; each phase involves specific chromosome and spindle behaviors.
  • Cytokinesis in animal vs plant cells
    Animal cells divide by cleavage furrow; plant cells form a cell plate to separate daughter cells.
  • Cancerous vs healthy cells
    Cancer cells divide uncontrollably, ignore growth signals, and can form malignant tumors; benign tumors do not spread.
  • Human chromosome organization
    Humans have 46 chromosomes: 44 autosomes and 2 sex chromosomes (XX or XY) in somatic cells.
  • Somatic cells vs gametes
    Somatic cells are diploid body cells; gametes are haploid reproductive cells produced by meiosis.
  • Phases of meiosis I and II
    Meiosis I: Prophase I (crossing over), metaphase I, anaphase I, telophase I; Meiosis II: similar to mitosis, separates sister chromatids.
  • Gregor Mendel's experiments
    Used pea plants to discover inheritance patterns and formulate laws of segregation and independent assortment.
  • Dominant vs recessive alleles
    Dominant alleles express their trait when present; recessive alleles express only when dominant is absent.
  • Genotype vs phenotype
    Genotype is the genetic makeup; phenotype is the observable traits resulting from the genotype.
  • Purpose of Punnett Squares
    Used to predict genotypic and phenotypic ratios of offspring from genetic crosses.
  • DNA location of genetic information
    Genetic information is stored in the sequence of nucleotide bases within the DNA molecule.
  • Protein synthesis main parts
    Transcription (in nucleus) and translation (in cytoplasm) are the two main stages of protein synthesis.
  • mRNA vs tRNA
    mRNA carries the genetic code from DNA; tRNA brings amino acids to the ribosome during translation.
  • Introns vs exons
    Introns are non-coding sequences removed from mRNA; exons are coding sequences expressed in proteins.
  • DNA mutations vs chromosomal mutations
    DNA mutations affect nucleotide sequences; chromosomal mutations involve large-scale changes like deletions or rearrangements.
  • Evolution and natural selection
    Evolution is change in species over time; natural selection is survival and reproduction of organisms best adapted to their environment.
  • Levels of biological classification
    Domain, Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus, Species; genus and species form the scientific name.