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General Biology Key Concepts

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  • Conditions required for natural selection
    Variation in traits, heredity of traits, and selective pressure causing differential reproductive success.
  • Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
    Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotes have both, affecting their structure and function.
  • Function of cell organelles in eukaryotes
    Organelles compartmentalize functions, increasing efficiency; missing organelles disrupt cell processes.
  • Role of the cytoskeleton
    Maintains cell structure and organization using components like actin and microtubules for cellular processes.
  • Surface area to volume ratio importance
    As cell size increases, ratio decreases, limiting efficient transport and affecting cell function.
  • Selective permeability of plasma membrane
    Membrane allows certain molecules to pass while blocking others, regulating energy use, growth, and homeostasis.
  • Types of membrane transport
    Passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, active transport, osmosis, and bulk transport differ by energy use and molecule type.
  • Structure and role of ATP
    ATP stores energy in phosphate bonds and is the main energy currency for cellular activities.
  • Photosynthesis overview
    Chloroplasts convert light energy to carbohydrates via photosystems I and II and the Calvin cycle in the chloroplast.
  • Effect of herbicides on photosynthesis
    Inhibiting photosynthesis steps disrupts carbohydrate and oxygen production, affecting plant and ecosystem health.
  • Chemiosmosis in ATP production
    Proton gradients drive ATP synthase to produce ATP in both cellular respiration and photosynthesis.
  • Four major steps of cellular respiration
    Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain with specific inputs and outputs.
  • Purpose of fermentation
    Allows ATP production without oxygen by regenerating NAD+; inputs and outputs vary by type.
  • Alternate pathways for ATP production
    Fats and proteins enter cellular respiration at different points to produce ATP; relates to weight changes.
  • Enzyme structure and function
    3D structure and R group bonding affect enzyme efficiency; environmental factors can disrupt this.
  • Hydrophobic vs hydrophilic molecules
    Hydrophobic repel water; hydrophilic attract water; this affects protein folding and membrane transport.
  • Role of enzyme inhibitors and feedback inhibition
    Inhibitors block enzyme function; feedback inhibition regulates pathways by controlling enzyme activity.
  • DNA structure
    Double helix of two strands with nucleotide bases paired via hydrogen bonds.
  • DNA replication process
    DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to growing strand, copying genetic information.
  • From DNA to protein: transcription and translation
    DNA transcribed to mRNA by RNA polymerase; mRNA translated to protein using codons and anticodons.
  • Alternative splicing
    Generates protein diversity by producing different mRNAs from the same gene.
  • Levels of gene expression regulation
    Includes chromatin remodeling, transcription factors, post-transcriptional modifications, and post-translational control.
  • Types of mutations and effects
    Silent, nonsense, frameshift, and missense mutations alter proteins differently, affecting phenotype.
  • Sexual life cycle and meiosis
    Meiosis produces haploid gametes; alternates with mitosis for growth and reproduction.
  • Haploid vs diploid
    Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes; diploid have two; appear in meiosis and mitosis respectively.
  • Steps of meiosis and genetic diversity
    Includes homologous chromosome pairing, crossing over, and segregation to increase variation.
  • Mitosis and identical daughter cells
    Process of cell division producing two genetically identical somatic cells.
  • Homologous chromosomes vs sister chromatids
    Homologous are chromosome pairs; sister chromatids are identical copies joined during mitosis/meiosis.
  • Gene mutations and cancer
    Mutations in genes like p53 and ras disrupt cell cycle control, leading to cancer.
  • Tumor suppressors vs proto-oncogenes
    Tumor suppressors prevent cancer; proto-oncogenes promote growth; mutations can cause cancer.
  • Role of cytoskeleton in cell division
    Actin and microtubules organize and separate chromosomes; targets for cancer therapies.
  • Basic genetics terms
    Allele, gene locus, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, and Punnett square explained.
  • Patterns of inheritance beyond Mendel
    Includes pleiotropy, polygenic inheritance, sex linkage, and codominance with examples.
  • Scientific techniques to study DNA
    PCR, gel electrophoresis, restriction enzyme digest, and DNA profiling methods.
  • Independent vs dependent variables
    Independent variable is manipulated; dependent variable is measured in experiments.
  • Bar graph vs line graph
    Bar graphs compare categories; line graphs show trends over time.
  • Purpose of a control in experiments
    Controls provide a baseline to compare experimental results.
  • Elements of a scientific hypothesis
    A testable, falsifiable statement predicting a relationship between variables.