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General Biology: Key Concepts and Lab Techniques

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  • Most abundant atoms in living things
    The most abundant atoms in living things are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, and nitrogen.
  • Types of chemical bonds in biology
    Covalent bonds involve sharing electrons; non-covalent bonds include hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds, and hydrophobic forces.
  • Importance of pH in the lab
    pH affects enzyme activity and chemical reactions; acids and buffers maintain stable pH in biological systems.
  • Definition of solution components
    Solute is the substance dissolved; solvent is the dissolving medium; concentration is often expressed in moles or percent solution.
  • Monomers and polymers of major macromolecules
    Carbohydrates: monomers are monosaccharides; proteins: amino acids; nucleic acids: nucleotides; lipids do not have true monomers.
  • Major functions of macromolecules
    Carbohydrates provide energy; proteins perform structural and enzymatic roles; nucleic acids store genetic information; lipids store energy and form membranes.
  • Structure of nucleic acids
    Nucleic acids have a sugar-phosphate backbone with attached nitrogenous bases (A, T, G, C in DNA).
  • Base pairing rules in DNA
    Adenine pairs with Thymine; Guanine pairs with Cytosine via hydrogen bonds.
  • Central Dogma of molecular biology
    Information flows from DNA to RNA to Protein through transcription and translation.
  • Differences between DNA and RNA
    DNA contains deoxyribose sugar and thymine; RNA contains ribose sugar and uracil.
  • Location of transcription and translation
    Transcription occurs in the nucleus; translation occurs in the cytoplasm on ribosomes.
  • Role of DNA polymerase
    DNA polymerase synthesizes new DNA strands during replication by adding nucleotides complementary to the template strand.
  • Role of RNA polymerase
    RNA polymerase synthesizes RNA from a DNA template during transcription.
  • Difference between prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
    Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles; eukaryotes have a nucleus and organelles.
  • Purpose of agarose gel electrophoresis
    Separates DNA or proteins by size using an electric field; DNA moves toward the positive electrode due to its negative charge.
  • Definition of a palindrome in DNA
    A sequence that reads the same 5' to 3' on one strand and 5' to 3' on the complementary strand, important for restriction enzyme recognition.
  • Sticky ends vs blunt ends
    Sticky ends have overhanging single-stranded DNA; blunt ends are cut straight across both strands.
  • Transformation in bacteria
    Process where competent cells take up exogenous DNA, often using heat shock to facilitate uptake.
  • Purpose of recovery in transformation
    Allows cells to express antibiotic resistance genes before plating on selective media.
  • Components of PCR
    Includes template DNA, primers, DNA polymerase, nucleotides, and buffer.
  • Steps of PCR
    Denaturation, annealing of primers, and extension by DNA polymerase.
  • Purpose of ELISA assay
    Detects and quantifies specific proteins or antibodies using antigen-antibody binding.
  • Why wash wells in ELISA?
    To remove unbound substances and reduce background noise for accurate detection.
  • Function of antibodies
    Proteins that specifically bind antigens; composed of variable and constant regions.
  • Quality control concepts in biotechnology
    Includes Good Manufacturing Practice (GMP) and Good Laboratory Practice (GLP) to ensure safety and accuracy.
  • Difference between accuracy and precision
    Accuracy is closeness to true value; precision is reproducibility of measurements.
  • Significance of significant figures
    Indicates the precision of a measurement and affects calculation results.
  • Scientific notation use
    Expresses very large or small numbers compactly for clarity and calculation.