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General Biology Key Concepts

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  • Conditions for Natural Selection
    Variation, heredity, and selective pressure with differential reproductive success must be met for natural selection to occur.
  • Difference between Prokaryotes and Eukaryotes
    Prokaryotes lack membrane-bound organelles and a nucleus; eukaryotes have both, affecting their cellular functions.
  • Function of Cell Organelles
    Organelles compartmentalize functions, increasing efficiency; missing organelles disrupt cell processes.
  • Role of Cytoskeleton
    The cytoskeleton, made of actin and microtubules, maintains cell shape and organizes cellular processes.
  • Surface Area to Volume Ratio in Cells
    As cell size increases, surface area to volume ratio decreases, limiting efficient transport and function.
  • Plasma Membrane Structure and Selective Permeability
    The plasma membrane's phospholipid bilayer allows selective permeability, controlling molecule movement in and out.
  • Types of Membrane Transport
    Passive diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis, active transport, and bulk transport differ by energy use and molecule type.
  • Structure and Role of ATP
    ATP stores energy in phosphate bonds and is the main energy currency for cellular activities.
  • Photosynthesis Overview
    Chloroplasts convert light energy to carbohydrates via photosystems I and II and the Calvin cycle in the stroma.
  • Effect of Herbicides on Photosynthesis
    Herbicides inhibiting photosynthesis disrupt carbohydrate production, affecting plant growth and oxygen output.
  • Chemiosmosis in ATP Production
    Chemiosmosis uses a proton gradient across membranes to drive ATP synthesis in both photosynthesis and respiration.
  • Four Major Steps of Cellular Respiration
    Glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation, Krebs cycle, and electron transport chain convert glucose to ATP.
  • Purpose of Fermentation
    Fermentation regenerates NAD+ for glycolysis under anaerobic conditions, producing ATP without oxygen.
  • Alternate Pathways Entering Cellular Respiration
    Fats and proteins can be converted into intermediates for ATP production in cellular respiration.
  • Enzyme Structure and Function
    Enzyme 3D structure, stabilized by R group bonds, is crucial for metabolic efficiency and can be disrupted by environment.
  • Hydrophobic vs Hydrophilic Molecules
    Hydrophobic molecules repel water; hydrophilic molecules attract water, influencing protein folding and membrane transport.
  • Role of Enzyme Inhibitors and Feedback Inhibition
    Inhibitors reduce enzyme activity; feedback inhibition regulates pathways by blocking enzymes when products accumulate.
  • DNA Structure
    DNA is a double helix composed of nucleotide pairs with complementary bases.
  • DNA Replication Process
    DNA polymerase adds nucleotides to a growing strand, copying genetic information.
  • From DNA to Protein: Transcription and Translation
    DNA is transcribed to mRNA by RNA polymerase, then translated to protein using codons and anticodons.
  • Alternative Splicing
    Alternative splicing creates diverse proteins from one gene by varying mRNA exon inclusion.
  • Gene Expression Regulation Levels
    Regulation occurs via chromatin remodeling, transcription factors, post-transcriptional modifications, and post-translational tags.
  • Types of Mutations and Effects
    Silent mutations do not change proteins; nonsense cause early stops; missense change amino acids; frameshift alter reading frames.
  • Sexual Life Cycle and Meiosis
    Meiosis produces haploid gametes, alternating with diploid mitosis for growth and repair.
  • Haploid vs Diploid
    Haploid cells have one set of chromosomes; diploid have two; meiosis reduces diploid to haploid.
  • Genetic Diversity in Meiosis
    Crossing over and independent assortment during meiosis increase genetic variation.
  • Mitosis Overview
    Mitosis produces two identical diploid daughter cells for growth and repair.
  • Homologous Chromosomes vs Sister Chromatids
    Homologous chromosomes are pairs from each parent; sister chromatids are identical copies joined after replication.
  • Cancer and Gene Mutations
    Mutations in genes like p53 and ras disrupt cell cycle control, leading to cancer.
  • Tumor Suppressors vs Proto-Oncogenes
    Tumor suppressors inhibit cell division; proto-oncogenes promote it; mutations can cause cancer.
  • Role of Cytoskeleton in Cell Division
    Actin and microtubules organize chromosomes and cytokinesis; targeting them can affect cancer cell division.
  • Basic Genetics Terms
    Allele, gene locus, dominant, recessive, homozygous, heterozygous, and Punnett squares describe inheritance patterns.
  • Non-Mendelian Inheritance Patterns
    Pleiotropy, polygenic inheritance, sex linkage, and codominance affect gene expression beyond classical Mendelian genetics.
  • Scientific Techniques to Study DNA
    PCR amplifies DNA; gel electrophoresis separates fragments; restriction enzymes cut DNA; DNA profiles identify individuals.
  • Independent vs Dependent Variables
    Independent variables are manipulated; dependent variables are measured outcomes.
  • Bar Graph vs Line Graph
    Bar graphs compare categories; line graphs show trends over time.
  • Purpose of Experimental Controls
    Controls provide a baseline to compare effects of the independent variable.
  • Elements of a Scientific Hypothesis
    A hypothesis is a testable prediction based on observations and prior knowledge.