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General Biology Study Guide

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  • Most complex level of biological organization

    Biosphere is the most complex level, encompassing all ecosystems on Earth where life exists.

  • Order of biological organization from least to most complex

    Organ System → Individual (Organism) → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

  • Role of a control group in experimental design

    A control group provides a baseline for comparison and does not receive the active treatment being tested.

  • Difference between hypothesis and scientific theory

    A hypothesis is a testable assumption made before research; a theory is a well-substantiated explanation supported by evidence.

  • Composition of Nitrogen-15 isotope

    Nitrogen-15 has 7 protons, 8 neutrons, and 7 electrons.

  • How is a covalent bond formed?

    A covalent bond is formed by the sharing of electrons between atoms.

  • Order of chemical bond strength from strongest to weakest

    Ionic > Covalent > Hydrogen > Van der Waals

  • What is cohesion in water?

    Cohesion is the attraction between like molecules, such as water molecules sticking together, enabling capillary action in plants.

  • What is a hydration shell?

    A hydration shell forms when water molecules surround and interact with charged ions, as seen when salt dissolves in water.

  • Maximum hydrogen bonds formed by one water molecule

    A single water molecule can form up to four hydrogen bonds simultaneously.

  • Relationship between pH and proton concentration

    Low pH means high proton concentration (acidic), and high pH means low proton concentration (basic).

  • Why are noncovalent interactions important for enzymes?

    They allow reversible binding and stabilization of substrates, enabling catalysis without permanent enzyme blockage.

  • Examples of polysaccharides

    Starch (plant energy storage), Glycogen (animal energy storage), and Cellulose (plant structural support) are polysaccharides.

  • Monomer unit of nucleic acids

    Nucleic acids are polymers made of repeating nucleotides, each containing a sugar, phosphate group, and nitrogenous base.

  • Difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids

    Saturated fatty acids have only single bonds; unsaturated fatty acids have one or more double bonds causing kinks.

  • Levels of protein structure

    Primary: amino acid sequence; Secondary: local folding (α-helices/β-sheets); Tertiary: 3D shape; Quaternary: multiple polypeptide subunits.

  • What holds quaternary protein subunits together?

    Quaternary subunits are held together by various noncovalent interactions like hydrophobic effects, hydrogen bonds, and Van der Waals forces, not just ionic bonds.

  • Functional groups attached to threonine's asymmetric carbons

    Threonine has methyl (−CH\(3\)), hydroxyl (−OH), amino (−NH\(2\)), and carboxyl (−COOH) groups; it does not have a phosphate group.