Module 1: Foundations of Anatomy & Physiology

Key Terminology

• Adaptive trait: A characteristic that increases an organism's chance of survival and reproduction.

• Clinical trial: A research study conducted with human participants to evaluate medical, surgical, or behavioral interventions.

• Community: A group of interacting populations living in the same area.

• Confounding variable: An outside influence that affects the outcome of an experiment, potentially leading to erroneous conclusions.

• Control group: The group in an experiment that does not receive the experimental treatment and is used as a benchmark.

• Critical thinking: The objective analysis and evaluation of an issue to form a judgment.

• Deductive reasoning: Reasoning from general principles to specific cases.

• Double-blind experiment: An experiment in which neither the participants nor the experimenters know who is receiving a particular treatment.

• Ecosystem: A biological community of interacting organisms and their physical environment.

• Epidemiological study: Research investigating the patterns, causes, and effects of health and disease conditions in defined populations.

• Experimental group: The group in an experiment that receives the treatment being tested.

• Homeostasis: The maintenance of stable internal conditions in an organism.

• Hypothesis: A testable statement or prediction about the natural world.

• Inductive reasoning: Reasoning from specific observations to broader generalizations.

• Informed consent agreement: A process by which a participant voluntarily confirms their willingness to participate in a study after being informed of all relevant aspects.

• Metabolism: The sum of all chemical reactions that occur within a living organism.

• Placebo: A substance with no therapeutic effect, used as a control in testing new drugs.

• Population: All the individuals of a species living in a specific area.

• Prokaryote: A unicellular organism lacking a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles.

• Theory: A well-substantiated explanation of some aspect of the natural world.

Concepts

1. Characteristics of Living Things: Living organisms share traits such as organization, metabolism, responsiveness, growth, reproduction, and adaptation.

2. Levels of Organization: From atom → molecule → cell → tissue → organ → organ system → organism → ecosystem.

3. Clinical Trial Phases: Phases I, II, and III test safety, efficacy, and comparison to current treatments.

4. Correlation vs. Causation: Correlation indicates a relationship between variables; causation means one variable directly affects another.

5. Classification of Life: Three domains: Bacteria, Archaea, Eukarya. Eukarya includes kingdoms: plants, animals, fungi, protists.

6. Scientific Method: Steps include observation, hypothesis, experiment, data collection, analysis, and conclusion. Example: Testing the effect of sunlight on plant growth.

Module 2: Chemistry of Life

Key Terminology

• Acid: Substance that releases hydrogen ions () in solution.

• Active site: The region on an enzyme where substrate molecules bind and undergo a chemical reaction.

• Amino acids: Building blocks of proteins, containing an amino group, carboxyl group, and side chain.

• Base: Substance that accepts hydrogen ions or releases hydroxide ions ().

• Buffer: Solution that resists changes in pH when acid or base is added.

• Carbohydrates: Organic molecules composed of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen; primary energy source.

• Cellulose: Structural polysaccharide in plant cell walls.

• Compound: Substance formed from two or more elements chemically bonded.

• Covalent bond: Chemical bond formed by sharing electron pairs between atoms.

• Denaturation: Loss of protein structure due to external stress (e.g., heat, pH).

• Electronegative: Tendency of an atom to attract electrons in a bond.

• Element: Pure substance consisting of one type of atom.

• Glycogen: Storage polysaccharide in animals.

• Hydrogen bond: Weak bond between a hydrogen atom and an electronegative atom.

• Hydrolysis: Chemical breakdown of a compound due to reaction with water.

• Hydrophilic: Water-attracting.

• Hydrophobic: Water-repelling.

• Ionic bond: Bond formed by the transfer of electrons from one atom to another.

• Isotope: Atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons.

• Monomer: Small molecule that can join with others to form polymers.

• Nucleotide: Building block of nucleic acids (DNA, RNA).

• Phospholipid: Major component of cell membranes.

• Polysaccharide: Large carbohydrate molecule composed of many monosaccharides.

• Protein: Polymer of amino acids; performs structural, enzymatic, and regulatory functions.

• Saturated fatty acid: Fatty acid with no double bonds between carbon atoms.

• Solute: Substance dissolved in a solvent.

• Solvent: Substance that dissolves a solute.

• Starch: Storage polysaccharide in plants.

• Steroids: Lipid molecules with four fused rings; includes hormones.

• Tertiary structure: Three-dimensional folding of a protein.

• Triglycerides: Main constituents of body fat in humans.

Concepts

1. Charged vs. Neutral Atoms: Neutral atoms have equal numbers of protons and electrons; ions have unequal numbers.

2. Properties of Water: High heat capacity, solvent abilities, cohesion, adhesion, and surface tension.

3. pH Scale: Measures hydrogen ion concentration; .

4. Acids and Bases: Acids donate ; bases accept or donate . Example: Hydrochloric acid () is an acid; sodium hydroxide () is a base.

5. Protein Structure: Four levels: primary (sequence), secondary (folding), tertiary (3D shape), quaternary (multiple polypeptides).

6. ATP: Adenosine triphosphate, the energy currency of the cell.

7. DNA Structure: Double helix composed of nucleotides (A, T, C, G).

8. Macromolecules: Carbohydrates, proteins, lipids, nucleic acids; each with specific monomers and functions.

9. Electron Shells: Electrons occupy energy levels; first shell holds 2, second holds 8, etc.

10. Atomic Number and Mass: Atomic number = number of protons; atomic mass = protons + neutrons.

11. Ion Charge:

12. Types of Skin Cancer: Basal cell carcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, melanoma.

Module 3: The Cell

Key Terminology

• 9+2 pattern of microtubules: Structure found in eukaryotic cilia and flagella.

• Actin: Protein forming microfilaments in the cytoskeleton.

• ATP: Energy molecule produced in mitochondria.

• Cholesterol: Lipid that stabilizes cell membranes.

• Cilia: Hair-like structures for movement.

• Cytoskeleton: Network of protein filaments providing cell shape and movement.

• Endocytosis: Process of taking substances into the cell.

• Exocytosis: Process of expelling substances from the cell.

• Flagella: Long, whip-like structures for cell movement.

• Glycolysis: Metabolic pathway breaking down glucose for energy.

• Lysosome: Organelle containing digestive enzymes.

• Mitochondria: Organelle where cellular respiration occurs.

• Nucleus: Organelle containing genetic material.

• Phospholipid: Major component of cell membranes.

• Plasma membrane: Selectively permeable boundary of the cell.

• Ribosome: Organelle for protein synthesis.

• Rough endoplasmic reticulum: Organelle with ribosomes, synthesizes proteins.

• Simple diffusion: Movement of molecules from high to low concentration.

• Transition reaction: Step in cellular respiration linking glycolysis and citric acid cycle.

Concepts

1. Plasma Membrane Structure: Composed of phospholipids, cholesterol, and proteins; forms a bilayer.

2. Membrane-bound Organelles: Nucleus, mitochondria, lysosomes, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi apparatus.

3. Cell Tonicity: Hypotonic: Lower solute concentration outside cell; Isotonic: Equal solute; Hypertonic: Higher solute outside.

4. Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Prokaryotes lack nucleus and organelles; eukaryotes have both. Additional info: Eukaryotes are generally larger and more complex.

5. Cellular Respiration: Stages: glycolysis, transition reaction, citric acid cycle, electron transport chain. ATP Yield: Glycolysis (2 ATP), Citric Acid Cycle (2 ATP), Electron Transport Chain (about 32 ATP).

6. Cell Structure and Function: Cell shape and organelle composition relate to function (e.g., muscle cells have many mitochondria).

Module 4: Tissues and Integumentary System

Key Terminology

• Abdominal cavity: Body cavity containing digestive organs.

• Adipose tissue: Tissue that stores fat.

• Basement membrane: Thin layer anchoring epithelial tissue to underlying tissue.

• Connective tissue: Tissue supporting, binding, or protecting organs.

• Dermis: Inner layer of skin containing nerves and blood vessels.

• Endocrine glands: Glands that secrete hormones into the bloodstream.

• Epidermis: Outer layer of skin.

• Fibrous cartilage: Cartilage with dense collagen fibers.

• Gap junctions: Channels allowing communication between cells.

• Hypodermis: Subcutaneous layer beneath the skin.

• Keratin: Protein providing strength to skin, hair, and nails.

• Loose connective tissue: Tissue with loosely arranged fibers.

• Melanin: Pigment responsible for skin color.

• Mucous membrane: Membrane lining body cavities open to the exterior.

• Negative feedback mechanism: Process that reduces deviation from a set point (e.g., temperature regulation).

• Sebaceous gland: Gland producing oil for skin lubrication.

• Stratified squamous cells: Multiple layers of flat cells.

• Synovial membrane: Membrane lining joint cavities.

• Vitamin D: Vitamin produced in skin exposed to sunlight.

Concepts

1. Organ Systems: Major systems include integumentary, skeletal, muscular, nervous, endocrine, cardiovascular, lymphatic, respiratory, digestive, urinary, and reproductive.

2. Levels of Organization: Cells → tissues → organs → organ systems → organism.

3. Four Tissue Types: Epithelial, connective, muscle, nervous.

4. Body Cavities: Dorsal (cranial, vertebral), ventral (thoracic, abdominal, pelvic).

5. Skin Layers: Epidermis (outer), dermis (middle), hypodermis (inner).

6. Types of Joints: Fibrous, cartilaginous, synovial.

7. Membrane Types: Cutaneous (skin), mucous (lines cavities open to exterior), serous (lines closed cavities), synovial (lines joints).

8. Nutrient Delivery: Blood vessels in dermis supply nutrients; epidermis receives nutrients by diffusion.

9. Negative Feedback in Temperature Regulation: Sensor detects change, control center processes, effector responds (e.g., sweating to cool body).

10. Cell Types and Functions:

    Cell Type	Location	Function
    Squamous	Skin, alveoli	Diffusion, protection
    Cuboidal	Kidney tubules	Secretion, absorption
    Columnar	Digestive tract	Absorption, secretion
    Stratified squamous	Skin, mouth	Protection
    Stratified cuboidal	Glands	Secretion
    Stratified columnar	Male urethra	Protection, secretion

11. Functions of the Skin: Protection, sensation, temperature regulation, vitamin D synthesis, excretion.